Civilian Casualties

Civilian Casualties

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Incident Code

RS4425

Incident date

February 9, 2020

Location

أورم الصغرى, Urma Al Sughra, Aleppo, Syria

Airwars assessment

Two or three civilians were reportedly killed and others were wounded by alleged Russian or Syrian regime airstrikes on the village of Urm Al Sughra, western Aleppo countryside, on February 9th, 2020, according to local sources.

The Syrian Observatory for Human Rights reported it had documented the death of three civilians as the result of Russian airstrikes. Shabha Press added that others were wounded.

The Syrian Civil Defence blamed both Russia and the Syrian regime for the airstrikes, and put the death toll at two killed civilians, matching Shaam News Network’s report of the incident.

Multiple other sources confirmed the deaths, but did not identify any specific names.

The local time of the incident is unknown.

Summary

  • Strike status
    Contested strike
  • Strike type
    Airstrike
  • Civilian harm reported
    Yes
  • Civilians reported killed
    2 – 3
  • Civilians reported injured
    2
  • Cause of injury / death
    Heavy weapons and explosive munitions
  • Airwars civilian harm grading
    Contested
    Competing claims of responsibility e.g. multiple belligerents, or casualties also attributed to ground forces.
  • Suspected attackers
    Russian Military, Syrian Regime

Sources (14) [ collapse]

Media
from sources (1) [ collapse]

  • Syrian Civil Defence volunteer inspecting a car, presumably hit in alleged Russian or Syrian regime airstrikes on the village of Urma Al Sughra, Aleppo governorate, on February 9th, 2020 (via @Shabha_Press).

Russian Military Assessment:

  • Suspected belligerent
    Russian Military
  • Russian Military position on incident
    Not yet assessed

Syrian Regime Assessment:

  • Suspected belligerent
    Syrian Regime
  • Syrian Regime position on incident
    Not yet assessed

Summary

  • Strike status
    Contested strike
  • Strike type
    Airstrike
  • Civilian harm reported
    Yes
  • Civilians reported killed
    2 – 3
  • Civilians reported injured
    2
  • Cause of injury / death
    Heavy weapons and explosive munitions
  • Airwars civilian harm grading
    Contested
    Competing claims of responsibility e.g. multiple belligerents, or casualties also attributed to ground forces.
  • Suspected attackers
    Russian Military, Syrian Regime

Sources (14) [ collapse]

Incident Code

RS4426

Incident date

February 9, 2020

Location

الأتارب, Al Atarib, Aleppo, Syria

Airwars assessment

Four people, including a four year old child, were reportedly killed and up to nine civilians were wounded in alleged Russian or Syrian regime air and artillery strikes on the city of Al Atarib, western Aleppo countryside, on February 9th, 2020, according to local sources.

The child was identified as Hatem Abdulllah Haid, who was four years old boy. Others identified as Ahmed Ibn Abdullah Mesto Yassin, a young man, Amjad Zikra, and Tamer Jaber.

Shabha Press reported that “two martyrs and nine wounded civilians, as a result of raids by Russian occupation planes on the city of Al Atarib in the western Aleppo countryside”. Earlier that day, Shabha reported that civilians were wounded in Syrian regime helicopter bombings with explosive barrels on the city.

@Step_Agency stated that the death toll of the airstrikes had risen to four civilians, including a child, and reported the use of vacuum missiles.

The Syrian Civil Defence in Aleppo posted a video of the recovering of the body of Amjad Zekra, a young man displaced from Ma’arat Al Numan, “from among the rubble caused by the artillery shelling that targeted civilian homes in Atarib city”. SCD Aleppo also posted a video of the burning of a car of a displaced person as the result of Russian airstrikes.

The SCD Aleppo gave conflicting reports about whether the incident occured in the afternoon or during the night.

The local time of the incident is unknown.

The victims were named as:

Family members

The victims were named as:

Amjad Zekra
Adult male displaced from Ma'arat Al Numan killed
Ahmed Abdullah Mesto Yassine
Adult male killed
Hatem Abdullah Hiad
4 years old male killed
Tamer Jaber
Age unknown male displaced from Homs killed

Summary

  • Strike status
    Contested strike
  • Strike type
    Airstrike and/or Artillery
  • Civilian harm reported
    Yes
  • Civilians reported killed
    3 – 4
  • (1 child1 man)
  • Civilians reported injured
    9
  • Cause of injury / death
    Heavy weapons and explosive munitions
  • Airwars civilian harm grading
    Contested
    Competing claims of responsibility e.g. multiple belligerents, or casualties also attributed to ground forces.
  • Suspected attackers
    Russian Military, Syrian Regime

Sources (24) [ collapse]

Media
from sources (10) [ collapse]

  • Aftermath of alleged Russian or Syrian regime airstrikes on the city of Al Atarib, Aleppo governorate, on February 9th, 2020 (via SCD Aleppo).
  • A large fire broke out in the city of Atarib, as a result of the bombing with barrels and vacuum missiles (Image posted by @EyadHoms20)
  • A large fire broke out in the city of Atarib, as a result of the bombing with barrels and vacuum missiles (Image posted by @EyadHoms20)
  • A large fire broke out in the city of Atarib, as a result of the bombing with barrels and vacuum missiles (Image posted by @EyadHoms20)
  • A large fire broke out in the city of Atarib, as a result of the bombing with barrels and vacuum missiles (Image posted by @EyadHoms20)
  • A large fire broke out in the city of Atarib, as a result of the bombing with barrels and vacuum missiles (Image posted by @Sy24ria)
  • A large fire broke out in the city of Atarib, as a result of the bombing with barrels and vacuum missiles (Image posted by @Sy24ria)
  • A large fire broke out in the city of Atarib, as a result of the bombing with barrels and vacuum missiles (Image posted by @Sy24ria)
  • A large fire broke out in the city of Atarib, as a result of the bombing with barrels and vacuum missiles (Image posted by @Sy24ria)

Russian Military Assessment:

  • Suspected belligerent
    Russian Military
  • Russian Military position on incident
    Not yet assessed

Syrian Regime Assessment:

  • Suspected belligerent
    Syrian Regime
  • Syrian Regime position on incident
    Not yet assessed

Summary

  • Strike status
    Contested strike
  • Strike type
    Airstrike and/or Artillery
  • Civilian harm reported
    Yes
  • Civilians reported killed
    3 – 4
  • (1 child1 man)
  • Civilians reported injured
    9
  • Cause of injury / death
    Heavy weapons and explosive munitions
  • Airwars civilian harm grading
    Contested
    Competing claims of responsibility e.g. multiple belligerents, or casualties also attributed to ground forces.
  • Suspected attackers
    Russian Military, Syrian Regime

Sources (24) [ collapse]

Incident Code

RS4427

Incident date

February 9, 2020

Location

بلدات متعددة, Several towns, Idlib, Syria

Airwars assessment

Alleged Russian and Syrian regime air and artillery strikes on several towns in Idlib have led to the death and injury of an unknown number of civilians on February 9th, 2020, according to Shaam News Network.

Shaam reported that “Russian and Assad’s air forces launched airstrikes targeting the outskirts of Idlib, Sarmin, the villages of Maarat Al Na’san, Marj Al Zuhur, and Ram Hamdan, and the city of Jisr Al Shughour and the towns of Badama and al-Hanboushieh were subjected to fierce artillery shelling, which resulted in martyrs and wounded civilians.”

Currently, further information is unavailable to Airwars. Due to limitations in sources, it is possible that the casualties have been reflected in other assessments.

The local time of the incident is unknown.

Summary

  • Strike status
    Single source claim
  • Strike type
    Airstrike and/or Artillery
  • Civilian harm reported
    Yes
  • Civilians reported killed
    2
  • Civilians reported injured
    2
  • Cause of injury / death
    Heavy weapons and explosive munitions
  • Airwars civilian harm grading
    Weak
    Single source claim, though sometimes featuring significant information.
  • Suspected attackers
    Russian Military, Syrian Regime

Sources (1) [ collapse]

Russian Military Assessment:

  • Suspected belligerent
    Russian Military
  • Russian Military position on incident
    Not yet assessed

Syrian Regime Assessment:

  • Suspected belligerent
    Syrian Regime
  • Syrian Regime position on incident
    Not yet assessed

Summary

  • Strike status
    Single source claim
  • Strike type
    Airstrike and/or Artillery
  • Civilian harm reported
    Yes
  • Civilians reported killed
    2
  • Civilians reported injured
    2
  • Cause of injury / death
    Heavy weapons and explosive munitions
  • Airwars civilian harm grading
    Weak
    Single source claim, though sometimes featuring significant information.
  • Suspected attackers
    Russian Military, Syrian Regime

Sources (1) [ collapse]

Incident Code

RS4428

Incident date

February 9, 2020

Location

ابين سمعان, Abin Samaan, Aleppo, Syria

Airwars assessment

Up to twelve civilians, including two women and six children, were killed and up to twenty civilians injured in alleged Russian airstrikes on the village of Abin Samaan, Aleppo governorate, on the night of February 9th to February 10th, 2020, according to local sources. Edlib Media Center said that three of those killed belong to the same family, a father and his two daughters.

Numerous reports about the numbers of dead and wounded changed rapidly. Director of Media for Civil Defense, Ibrahim Al-Laith, told Smart News that nine people had died and at least thirteen were hurt, including five women and four children. Shaam News reported a total of twelve dead while both the Syrian Network for Human Rights and Syrian Observatory for Human Rights confirmed nine deceased and over twenty wounded.

Omar Hallaq at Atarin Hospital reported having two dead and seven wounded brought to his hospital, while other victims were transported to other local medical centers. One name was released, and the victim was identified as Lujain Ramez Rashid. A complete list was released later the following day and the dead were identified as the following: Muhammad Mustafa Masoud, 50; Youssef Berro, a year and a half; Ola Masoud ; Muhammad Masoud ; Muhammad Hajj Hamdo; Tabarak Ghaly, 15 years ; Mrs. Fatima Dunya, 30; Abdul Rahman Khalasi, 30; Lujain Ramez Rashid. 

Civil Defense journalist Hamzah Taifousif noted that Russian warplanes specifically targeted the homes in the village of Abin Samaan.

Edlib Media Center reported the use of barrel bombs.

All sources blamed Russia for the airstrike, with the exception of the Syrian Network for Human Rights, which pointed at the Syrian regime.

The incident occured during the night.

The victims were named as:

Family members (3)

Muhammad Mustafa Masoud
50 years old killed
Ola Masoud
killed
Muhammad Masoud
killed

The victims were named as:

Lujain Ramez Rashid
Child female killed
Youssef Berro
1.5 years old killed
Muhammad Hajj Hamdo
Age unknown killed
Tabarak Ghaly
15 years old killed
Mrs. Fatima Dunya
30 years old female killed
Abdul Rahman Khalasi
30 years old killed

Summary

  • Strike status
    Contested strike
  • Strike type
    Airstrike
  • Civilian harm reported
    Yes
  • Civilians reported killed
    9 – 12
  • (6 children2 women1 man)
  • Civilians reported injured
    13–20
  • Cause of injury / death
    Heavy weapons and explosive munitions
  • Airwars civilian harm grading
    Contested
    Competing claims of responsibility e.g. multiple belligerents, or casualties also attributed to ground forces.
  • Suspected attackers
    Russian Military, Syrian Regime

Sources (13) [ collapse]

Media
from sources (10) [ collapse]

  • This media contains graphic content. Click to unblur.

    Man carrying the body of a baby girl after Russian airstrikes on the village of Abin Samaan, Aleppo governorate, on February 9th, 2020 (via MMC).

  • This media contains graphic content. Click to unblur.

    Killed man after alleged Russian airstrikes on the village of Abin Samaan, Aleppo governorate, on February 9th, 2020 (via MMC).
  • Search operation after alleged Russian airstrikes on the village of Abin Samaan, Aleppo governorate, on February 9th, 2020 (via MMC).
  • Aftermath of alleged Russian or Syrian regime airstrikes on Abin Samaan in Aleppo on February 9th 2020 (via Etilaf).
  • Aftermath of alleged Russian or Syrian regime airstrikes on Abin Samaan in Aleppo on February 9th 2020 (via Etilaf).
  • A civilian injured as a result of alleged Russian or Syrian regime shelling on Abin Samaan in Aleppo on February 9th 2020 (via Etilaf).

  • This media contains graphic content. Click to unblur.

    A man under the rubble in the aftermath of alleged Russian or Syrian regime airstrikes on Abin Samaan in Aleppo on February 9th 2020 (via Etilaf).

  • This media contains graphic content. Click to unblur.

    "A child was killed as a result of missile strikes by Russian warplanes on the town of Abyan Samaan, noting that the child was displaced from the town of Qalaat Al-Madeek, Hama." (via SMART)
  • "Lujain Ramez Rashid, from Qal’et al Madiq in the western suburbs of Hama governorate, one of victims were killed in the massacre took place as fixed- wing warplanes we believe were Russian fired missiles on Ebeeb Sam’an village in the western suburbs of Aleppo governorate, on February 10th." (via SNHR)
  • SCD volunteers responding after an airstrike on Ebeen Sam’an village in the western suburbs of Aleppo governorate, on February 10th. (via SNHR)

Russian Military Assessment:

  • Suspected belligerent
    Russian Military
  • Russian Military position on incident
    Not yet assessed

Syrian Regime Assessment:

  • Suspected belligerent
    Syrian Regime
  • Syrian Regime position on incident
    Not yet assessed

Summary

  • Strike status
    Contested strike
  • Strike type
    Airstrike
  • Civilian harm reported
    Yes
  • Civilians reported killed
    9 – 12
  • (6 children2 women1 man)
  • Civilians reported injured
    13–20
  • Cause of injury / death
    Heavy weapons and explosive munitions
  • Airwars civilian harm grading
    Contested
    Competing claims of responsibility e.g. multiple belligerents, or casualties also attributed to ground forces.
  • Suspected attackers
    Russian Military, Syrian Regime

Sources (13) [ collapse]

Incident Code

RS4429

Incident date

February 10, 2020

Location

الاتارب, Al Atareb, Aleppo, Syria

Airwars assessment

From multiple incidents in the same day, three civilians including a child were reported killed and more than 25 others, including a woman and a child, were injured in alleged Russian or Syrian regime airstrikes on Al Atarib in Aleppo, Syria on February 10th 2020, via local sources.

A Facebook post from Anastracey identified two incidents occurring in Al Atarib on February 10th. The first happened at 18:42 and resulted in the death of the young Omar Mustafa Omar Abdel Qader and the injury of “no less than 25” including a woman and a child. The second was carried out at 21:22 and resulted in the death of a man and a child.

The Syrian Network for Human Rights reported that “The girl Aalaa Oweira and Osamah Shouman were killed on February 10th, as fixed- wing warplanes we believe were Russian fired missiles near a car carrying them as they were displacing from al Atareb city in the western suburbs of Aleppo governorate to safer areas.”

@ShahbaPress reported on February 10th that “a man and his child are martyred due to the Russian warplanes targeting a car carrying them near the city of Atarib, west of Aleppo.”

The Violations Documentation Center in Syria reported that Abdul Rahman Jalawi, a media activist, was wounded while coving the bombing.

Most sources blamed Russia for the incident, but @Step_Agency reported that the Syrian regime also carried out airstrikes that killed civilians in the city of Atarib.

The incident occured in the evening.

The victims were named as:

Aalaa Oweira
Child female killed
Osamah Shouman
Age unknown male killed
Omar Mustafa Omar Abdel Qader
Age unknown male killed
Abdul Rahman Jalawi
Age unknown male injured

Summary

  • Strike status
    Contested strike
  • Strike type
    Airstrike and/or Artillery
  • Civilian harm reported
    Yes
  • Civilians reported killed
    3
  • (1 child2 men)
  • Civilians reported injured
    25
  • Causes of injury / death
    Heavy weapons and explosive munitions, Small arms and light weapons
  • Airwars civilian harm grading
    Contested
    Competing claims of responsibility e.g. multiple belligerents, or casualties also attributed to ground forces.
  • Suspected attacker
    Russian Military

Sources (17) [ collapse]

Media
from sources (2) [ collapse]

  • Omar Mustafa Omar Abdel Qader was killed as fixed-wing warplanes we believe were Russian bombed the city of Atarib in the western suburbs of Aleppo governorate, on February 10 (Image posted by Syrian Network for Human Rights via Facebook)
  • Media activist Abdul Rahman Jalawi was injured while covering the bombing in the city of Atarib, west of Aleppo. (Image posted by @Ahed_Slebi)

Russian Military Assessment:

  • Suspected belligerent
    Russian Military
  • Russian Military position on incident
    Not yet assessed

Summary

  • Strike status
    Contested strike
  • Strike type
    Airstrike and/or Artillery
  • Civilian harm reported
    Yes
  • Civilians reported killed
    3
  • (1 child2 men)
  • Civilians reported injured
    25
  • Causes of injury / death
    Heavy weapons and explosive munitions, Small arms and light weapons
  • Airwars civilian harm grading
    Contested
    Competing claims of responsibility e.g. multiple belligerents, or casualties also attributed to ground forces.
  • Suspected attacker
    Russian Military

Sources (17) [ collapse]

Incident Code

RS4430

Incident date

February 10, 2020

Location

كفر عروق, Kafr Arouq, Idlib, Syria

Airwars assessment

A child was reported killed and up to seven other civilians injured when allegedly Russian forces and Syrian regime forces targeted with airstrikes Kafr Arouq in Idlib, Syria on February 10th, 2020 according to local sources.

Initial reports from local sources said at least one person was dead and three wounded from the air strike. The Edlib Media Center and Shahba Press both later reported that a child had been killed and seven wounded, expanding upon a report from Halab Today TV which noted three injuries. No names were released.

Local resources reported seeing Russian warplanes using machine guns to specifically strike two different IDP (Internally Displaced Persons) camps, with @pHYACwTTh0Bjbun naming one as Kafr Arouq camp while @abo_aljod84 identified Sheikh Idris camp as also being bombed. A tweet from @MohanadZain3 pointed out that the incident occurred on the road between the towns of Kali – Kafr Arouq.

According to @kalam_hor, the first air raids struck “the road of the village of Kafr Arouq – Qorqania near the “Al Widow’s camp” and the second air raids struck “the road connecting the villages of Kali and Kafr Arouq near the “fuel station”.

The majority of sources noted that Russian fixed wing warplanes were responsible for the strike while @ShahbaPress attributed the strikes to the regime.

The incident occured during the night.

Summary

  • Strike status
    Contested strike
  • Strike type
    Airstrike
  • Civilian harm reported
    Yes
  • Civilians reported killed
    1
  • (1 child)
  • Civilians reported injured
    3–7
  • Causes of injury / death
    Heavy weapons and explosive munitions, Small arms and light weapons
  • Airwars civilian harm grading
    Contested
    Competing claims of responsibility e.g. multiple belligerents, or casualties also attributed to ground forces.
  • Suspected attackers
    Russian Military, Syrian Regime

Sources (11) [ collapse]

Media
from sources (7) [ collapse]

  • Destruction caused to Kafar Arouq camp in Idlib as a result of Russian forces or Syrian regime airstrikes on February 10th, 2020, in which a child was reported killed. (via EMC).
  • Destruction caused to Kafar Arouq camp in Idlib as a result of Russian forces or Syrian regime airstrikes on February 10th, 2020, in which a child was reported killed. (via EMC).
  • Destruction caused to Kafar Arouq camp in Idlib as a result of Russian forces or Syrian regime airstrikes on February 10th, 2020, in which a child was reported killed. (via EMC).
  • Destruction caused to Kafar Arouq camp in Idlib as a result of Russian forces or Syrian regime airstrikes on February 10th, 2020, in which a child was reported killed. (via EMC).
  • Destruction caused to Kafar Arouq camp in Idlib as a result of Russian forces or Syrian regime airstrikes on February 10th, 2020, in which a child was reported killed. (via EMC).
  • A child was martyred and civilians were wounded as a result of the artillery shelling of Sheikh Idris camp on the outskirts of the village of Kafr Arouk, north of Idlib. (Image posted by @abo_aljod84)

Russian Military Assessment:

  • Suspected belligerent
    Russian Military
  • Russian Military position on incident
    Not yet assessed

Syrian Regime Assessment:

  • Suspected belligerent
    Syrian Regime
  • Syrian Regime position on incident
    Not yet assessed

Summary

  • Strike status
    Contested strike
  • Strike type
    Airstrike
  • Civilian harm reported
    Yes
  • Civilians reported killed
    1
  • (1 child)
  • Civilians reported injured
    3–7
  • Causes of injury / death
    Heavy weapons and explosive munitions, Small arms and light weapons
  • Airwars civilian harm grading
    Contested
    Competing claims of responsibility e.g. multiple belligerents, or casualties also attributed to ground forces.
  • Suspected attackers
    Russian Military, Syrian Regime

Sources (11) [ collapse]

Incident Code

RS4431

Incident date

February 10, 2020

Location

بلدات متعددة, Several towns, Idlib, Syria

Airwars assessment

On February 10th, a collection of villages and towns were struck by Russian airstrikes, resulting in the wounding and killing of civilians.

Shaam News noted strikes were carried out by both Russian and Assad regime forces against the villages and towns of Idlib, Kafrnbel, Sarmin, Ketian, Maarat al-Na`san, Zardana, Arab Saeed, Kallali and Kafraruq, and Kafar Arouq. A confirmed death was reported in Kafar Arouq and a large number of wounded civilians were reported in the other areas.

The targeted locations were highly populated with civilians and had no military significance.

All reports, both locally and nationally, describe Russian and Assad regime warplanes carrying out these assaults.

The local time of the incident is unknown.

Summary

  • Strike status
    Single source claim
  • Strike type
    Airstrike
  • Civilian harm reported
    Yes
  • Civilians reported killed
    Unknown
  • Civilians reported injured
    1–3
  • Cause of injury / death
    Heavy weapons and explosive munitions
  • Airwars civilian harm grading
    Weak
    Single source claim, though sometimes featuring significant information.
  • Suspected attackers
    Russian Military, Syrian Regime

Sources (1) [ collapse]

Russian Military Assessment:

  • Suspected belligerent
    Russian Military
  • Russian Military position on incident
    Not yet assessed

Syrian Regime Assessment:

  • Suspected belligerent
    Syrian Regime
  • Syrian Regime position on incident
    Not yet assessed

Summary

  • Strike status
    Single source claim
  • Strike type
    Airstrike
  • Civilian harm reported
    Yes
  • Civilians reported killed
    Unknown
  • Civilians reported injured
    1–3
  • Cause of injury / death
    Heavy weapons and explosive munitions
  • Airwars civilian harm grading
    Weak
    Single source claim, though sometimes featuring significant information.
  • Suspected attackers
    Russian Military, Syrian Regime

Sources (1) [ collapse]

Incident Code

LC292

Incident date

February 10, 2020

Location

طريق الهضبة, Al Hadaba Road, Tripoli, Libya

Geolocation

32.870087, 13.196604 Note: The accuracy of this location is to Street level. Continue to map

Airwars assessment

Civilians were reported injured from shelling on the Al Hadaba road.

Tarhuna 24 said: “A shell landed on a house on Tareeq Al Hadaba, along with reports of injuries.”

Local reports of fighting point at the GNA or LNA as the culprit.

There is currently no further information available.

The local time of the incident is unknown.

Summary

  • Strike status
    Contested strike
  • Strike type
    Airstrike and/or Artillery
  • Civilian harm reported
    Yes
  • Civilians reported killed
    Unknown
  • Civilians reported injured
    2–3
  • Cause of injury / death
    Heavy weapons and explosive munitions
  • Airwars civilian harm grading
    Contested
    Competing claims of responsibility e.g. multiple belligerents, or casualties also attributed to ground forces.
  • Suspected attackers
    Government of National Accord, Libyan National Army

Sources (1) [ collapse]

Geolocation notes (1) [ collapse]

Reports of the incident mention Al Hadabah Road (طريق الهضبة), for which the generic coordinates are: 32.870087, 13.196604. Due to limited satellite imagery and information available to Airwars, we were unable to verify the location further.

  • Reports of the incident mention Al Hadabah Road (طريق الهضبة).

    Imagery:
    Google Earth

Government of National Accord Assessment:

  • Suspected belligerent
    Government of National Accord
  • Government of National Accord position on incident
    Not yet assessed

Libyan National Army Assessment:

  • Suspected belligerent
    Libyan National Army
  • Libyan National Army position on incident
    Not yet assessed

Summary

  • Strike status
    Contested strike
  • Strike type
    Airstrike and/or Artillery
  • Civilian harm reported
    Yes
  • Civilians reported killed
    Unknown
  • Civilians reported injured
    2–3
  • Cause of injury / death
    Heavy weapons and explosive munitions
  • Airwars civilian harm grading
    Contested
    Competing claims of responsibility e.g. multiple belligerents, or casualties also attributed to ground forces.
  • Suspected attackers
    Government of National Accord, Libyan National Army

Sources (1) [ collapse]