US-led Coalition in Iraq & Syria

Civilians in the ruins of Mosul city. (Maranie R. Staab)

Belligerent
US-led Coalition
Country
Iraq
Syria
start date
end date
Civilian Harm Status
Belligerent Assessment
Declassified Documents
Infrastructure

Incident Code

CI387

Incident date

January 3, 2017

Location

حي النور, Mosul, Noor, Nineveh, Iraq

Geolocation

36.3638331, 43.1857967 Note: The accuracy of this location is to Neighbourhood/area level. Continue to map

Airwars assessment

Yaqein reported that one civilian was killed and 11 injured in the Noor neighborhood of eastern Mosul. It cited “government and international” strikes.

Iraqi Spring Media Center meanwhile reported that 9 civilians were injured in addition to the one death. Among the injured were women and children.

Sawlif Maslawia Ateka and Adhamiyah News named two children that reportedly died “after their house fell down and their mother and father were wounded in hospitals.” The girls were called Sonia and Harith.

The local time of the incident is unknown.

The victims were named as:

Family members (2)

Sonia
Child female killed
Harith
Child female killed

Summary

  • Civilian harm reported
    Yes
  • Civilians reported killed
    2 – 3
  • (2 children)
  • Civilians reported injured
    9–11
  • Airwars civilian harm grading
    Contested
    Competing claims of responsibility e.g. multiple belligerents, or casualties also attributed to ground forces.
  • Suspected attackers
    US-led Coalition, Iraq Government Forces

Sources (5) [ collapse]

Media
from sources (1) [ collapse]

  • Images of Sonia and Harith, supposedly killed as a result of the strike
CJTF–OIR Declassified Assessment and Press Release

Attached to this civilian harm incident is a provisional reconciliation of the Pentagon's declassified assessment of this civilian harm allegation, based on matching date and locational information.

The declassified documents were obtained by Azmat Khan and the New York Times through Freedom of Information requests and lawsuits filed since March 2017, and are included alongside the corresponding press release published by the Pentagon. Airwars is currently analysing the contents of each file, and will update our own assessments accordingly.

Declassified Assessment Press Release

US-led Coalition Assessment:

  • Suspected belligerent
    US-led Coalition
  • US-led Coalition position on incident
    Not yet assessed

Original strike reports

US-led Coalition

For January 2nd-3rd publicly stated: “Near Mosul, three strikes engaged three ISIL tactical units; destroyed three buildings, a heavy machine gun, two mortars, a piece of engineering equipment, a VBIED, and a front-end loader; damaged 17 supply routes; and suppressed four mortar teams.”
For January 3rd-4th it noted: “Near Mosul, three strikes engaged two ISIL tactical units; destroyed two mortars, a tactical vehicle, and two command and control nodes; damaged two supply routes, and suppressed nine mortar teams and an ISIL tactical unit.”

Iraq Government Forces Assessment:

  • Suspected belligerent
    Iraq Government Forces
  • Iraq Government Forces position on incident
    Not yet assessed

Summary

  • Civilian harm reported
    Yes
  • Civilians reported killed
    2 – 3
  • (2 children)
  • Civilians reported injured
    9–11
  • Airwars civilian harm grading
    Contested
    Competing claims of responsibility e.g. multiple belligerents, or casualties also attributed to ground forces.
  • Suspected attackers
    US-led Coalition, Iraq Government Forces

Sources (5) [ collapse]

Incident Code

CS466

Incident date

January 30, 2017

Location

الثورة‎, Al-Thawrah (Tabaqah), Ar Raqqah, Syria

Geolocation

35.8295049, 38.5360909 Note: The accuracy of this location is to City level. Continue to map

Airwars assessment

Up to three civilians were killed in reported Coalition airstrikes around al Tabaqa when a school was hit in airstrikes. One of the casualtiies was said to be a special needs person.

According to Smart News, “A local source said the [Coalition] planes bombed the area of the villas and Muhammad Al Fares school in Al Thaleth [the third] neighbourhood in al Tabaqa. A medical source explained that two dead and three wounded civilians were brought to the national hospital in Tabaqa – one of them someone with special needs.” Syrian Mirror said some of those injured were in a critical condition.

Syria News Desk – which said two civilians died and four were injured, noted that the airstrike “also led to the complete destruction of two houses and material damage to a number of shops and other property.”

 

 

The local time of the incident is unknown.

The victims were named as:

Age unknown male From Deir Ezzor killed

Summary

  • Civilian infrastructure
    School
  • Civilian harm reported
    Yes
  • Civilians reported killed
    2 – 3
  • Civilians reported injured
    3–4
  • Airwars civilian harm grading
    Fair
    Reported by two or more credible sources, with likely or confirmed near actions by a belligerent.
  • Suspected attacker
    US-led Coalition

Sources (7) [ collapse]

Media
from sources (3) [ collapse]

  • The consumer association “the warehouse” near the sports city after it was struck (via Euphrates Post)
  • The consumer association “the warehouse” near the sports city after it was struck (via Euphrates Post)
  • The consumer association “the warehouse” near the sports city after it was struck (via Euphrates Post)
CJTF–OIR Declassified Assessment and Press Release

Attached to this civilian harm incident is a provisional reconciliation of the Pentagon's declassified assessment of this civilian harm allegation, based on matching date and locational information.

The declassified documents were obtained by Azmat Khan and the New York Times through Freedom of Information requests and lawsuits filed since March 2017, and are included alongside the corresponding press release published by the Pentagon. Airwars is currently analysing the contents of each file, and will update our own assessments accordingly.

Declassified Assessment Press Release

US-led Coalition Assessment:

  • Suspected belligerent
    US-led Coalition
  • US-led Coalition position on incident
    Non credible / Unsubstantiated
    Insufficient information to assess that, more likely than not, a Coalition strike resulted in civilian casualties.
  • Reason for non-credible assessment
    No Coalition strikes were conducted in the geographical area
  • Civilian deaths conceded
    None
  • Civilian injuries conceded
    None
  • Stated location
    near Al Tabqa, Iraq
    Nearest population center
  • Location accuracy
    100 m
  • MGRS coordinate
    37SDV580651
    Military Grid Reference System

Civilian casualty statements

US-led Coalition
  • Feb 22, 2018
  • After a review of available information it was assessed that no Coalition strikes were conducted in the geographical area that correspond to the report of civilian casualties.

Original strike reports

US-led Coalition

For January 29th-30th the Coalition publicly reported that Near Ar Raqqah, four strikes destroyed a front-end loader, an ammunition factory, an oil pump jack and an oil storage tank; and damaged a supply route.”

Summary

  • Civilian infrastructure
    School
  • Civilian harm reported
    Yes
  • Civilians reported killed
    2 – 3
  • Civilians reported injured
    3–4
  • Airwars civilian harm grading
    Fair
    Reported by two or more credible sources, with likely or confirmed near actions by a belligerent.
  • Suspected attacker
    US-led Coalition

Sources (7) [ collapse]

Incident Code

CS601

Incident date

March 21, 2017

Location

الجديدة, Al Jadida, Ar Raqqah, Syria

Airwars assessment

Al Raqqa Truth reported the death of four civilians in an alleged Coalition airstrike on the village of Jadida. It named the victims.

No additional details are presently known.

The local time of the incident is unknown.

The victims were named as:

The child Wa’ed Jassem Al Mo
Child killed
Bayan al Hassan al Farman
Age unknown female killed
Jalila al Hassan al Hamoud al Zeid
Age unknown female killed

Summary

  • Civilian harm reported
    Yes
  • Civilians reported killed
    3
  • (1 child2 women)
  • Airwars civilian harm grading
    Weak
    Single source claim, though sometimes featuring significant information.
  • Suspected attacker
    US-led Coalition

Sources (1) [ collapse]

Media
from sources (2) [ collapse]

  • The aftermath of the alleged Coalition raid on Al Jadida, 21st March 2017. (via Al Raqqa truth)
  • The aftermath of the alleged Coalition raid on Al Jadida, 21st March 2017. (via Al Raqqa truth)

US-led Coalition Assessment:

  • Suspected belligerent
    US-led Coalition
  • US-led Coalition position on incident
    Not yet assessed

Original strike reports

US-led Coalition

For March 21st-22nd: the Coalition stated: “Near Ar Raqqah, 18 strikes engaged two ISIS tactical units and an ISIS staging area; destroyed four command and control nodes, three tanker trucks, three ISIS-held buildings, an oil storage tank, a VBIED, an ISIS headquarters, a fighting position, and an ISIS media facility; and damaged four supply routes.”

Media
from belligerent (1) [ collapse]

  • On Mar. 21 #CJTFOIR conducted 29 strikes consisting of 60 engagements against ISIS terrorists in Syria & Iraq. MORE: http://ow.ly/O0uF30a9gt8 (via CJTFOIR)

Summary

  • Civilian harm reported
    Yes
  • Civilians reported killed
    3
  • (1 child2 women)
  • Airwars civilian harm grading
    Weak
    Single source claim, though sometimes featuring significant information.
  • Suspected attacker
    US-led Coalition

Sources (1) [ collapse]

Incident Code

CI578

Incident date

March 26, 2017

Location

الموصل: الزنجيلي, Mosul, Al-Zinjili, Nineveh, Iraq

Geolocation

36.350932, 43.111449 Note: The accuracy of this location is to Neighbourhood/area level. Continue to map

Airwars assessment

A single source said that many women were killed or injured after a Coalition helicopter struck a flour shop where they were working at the time. This took place in Zanjili neighborhood in the west of Mosul.

See also incident CI581.

The local time of the incident is unknown.

Summary

  • Civilian harm reported
    Yes
  • Civilians reported killed
    3
  • (3 women)
  • Civilians reported injured
    2
  • Airwars civilian harm grading
    Weak
    Single source claim, though sometimes featuring significant information.
  • Suspected attacker
    US-led Coalition

Sources (2) [ collapse]

CJTF–OIR Declassified Assessment and Press Release

Attached to this civilian harm incident is a provisional reconciliation of the Pentagon's declassified assessment of this civilian harm allegation, based on matching date and locational information.

The declassified documents were obtained by Azmat Khan and the New York Times through Freedom of Information requests and lawsuits filed since March 2017, and are included alongside the corresponding press release published by the Pentagon. Airwars is currently analysing the contents of each file, and will update our own assessments accordingly.

Declassified Assessment Press Release

US-led Coalition Assessment:

  • Suspected belligerent
    US-led Coalition
  • US-led Coalition position on incident
    Non credible / Unsubstantiated
    Insufficient information to assess that, more likely than not, a Coalition strike resulted in civilian casualties.
  • Reason for non-credible assessment
    Insufficient evidence of civilian harm
  • Civilian deaths conceded
    None
  • Civilian injuries conceded
    None
  • Stated location
    near Al Zinjili, Iraq
    Nearest population center
  • Location accuracy
    100 m
  • MGRS coordinate
    38SLF308246
    Military Grid Reference System

Civilian casualty statements

US-led Coalition
  • Apr 26, 2018
  • After a review of available information and strike video it was assessed that there is insufficient evidence to find civilians were harmed in this strike.

Original strike reports

US-led Coalition

For March 25th-26th the Coalition publicly noted: ” Near Mosul, five strikes engaged five ISIS tactical units; destroyed seven fighting positions, four mortar positions, two tactical vehicles, a supply cache, and a sniper weapon system; damaged 11 supply routes and a fighting position; and suppressed two ISIS tactical units.”

Summary

  • Civilian harm reported
    Yes
  • Civilians reported killed
    3
  • (3 women)
  • Civilians reported injured
    2
  • Airwars civilian harm grading
    Weak
    Single source claim, though sometimes featuring significant information.
  • Suspected attacker
    US-led Coalition

Sources (2) [ collapse]

Incident Code

CS1433

Incident date

August 31, 2017

Location

Sagheer Shamiya, Deir ez-Zor, Syria

Geolocation

35.477377, 39.98723 Note: The accuracy of this location is to Village level. Continue to map

Airwars assessment

Three or more civilians died in an airstrike on Zaghir Shamiya, according to local media – though reports were conflicted as to whether the Coalition, Russia or the Syrian Regime were responsible for the event.

The Syrian Observatory for Human Rights reported that between two and three people were killed following an aerial offensive in Deir Ezzor Governorate. Initially, the SOHR said that three “persons” were killed in the West of Deir Ezzor, a later report said that two civilians, a man and a woman were killed. The SOHR did not specify who was to blame. Airwars will update the entry when new information arises regarding the civilians killed; the death toll is expected to rise due to “several injured people in serious conditions”.

According to Asharq al Souri, three members from “the family of Hamdah“ were killed in a strike, though the source didn’t identify the culprit.

SHRC named a victim and blamed the Coalition. DPN also named a victim but who blamed “the bombing of the regime’s airliner and its Russian occupier”.

The local time of the incident is unknown.

The victims were named as:

Huriat Al-Nasser Al-Abdullah
Age unknown male named as a further victim by DeirEzzor24. killed
Obeid Al-Hamdah
Age unknown was named by SHRC as a victim killed
Huraira Nasser Al-Abdullah
Age unknown named by DPN killed

Summary

  • Civilian harm reported
    Yes
  • Civilians reported killed
    3
  • (1 woman)
  • Civilians reported injured
    2
  • Suspected attackers
    US-led Coalition, Russian Military

Sources (8) [ collapse]

Geolocation notes (1) [ collapse]

Reports of incident mention Zaghir Shamiya (زغير شامية) village, for which the coordinates are: 35.477377, 39.987230.

  • Zaghir Shamiya (زغير شامية) village in the countryside of Deir Ezzor.

    Imagery:
    © 2018 Google

US-led Coalition Assessment:

  • Suspected belligerent
    US-led Coalition
  • US-led Coalition position on incident
    Not yet assessed

Original strike reports

US-led Coalition

For August 31st – September 1st the Coalition reported “Near Dayr Az Zawr, two strikes engaged two ISIS tactical units, destroyed five tactical vehicles and a machine gun, and damaged a bridge.”

Russian Military Assessment:

  • Suspected belligerent
    Russian Military
  • Russian Military position on incident
    Not yet assessed

Summary

  • Civilian harm reported
    Yes
  • Civilians reported killed
    3
  • (1 woman)
  • Civilians reported injured
    2
  • Suspected attackers
    US-led Coalition, Russian Military

Sources (8) [ collapse]

Incident Code

CS1460

Incident date

September 9, 2017

Location

الحديقة البيضا, Hadika Al Bayda (White Garden), Ar Raqqah, Syria

Geolocation

35.9605703, 38.9976883 Note: The accuracy of this location is to Neighbourhood/area level. Continue to map

Airwars assessment

Local media reported that three civilians died and several more were wounded in an alleged Coalition airstrike on Al Hadika al Baidaa in Raqqah.

According to al Hassakah Rasd, “According to local sources, three civilians were killed on Saturday, and others were injured by the bombing of the neighborhoods of the city by coalition aircraft and artillery.” Smart News said the casualties occurred in the Al Hadika al Baidaa area.

Two civilians were named by the Syrian Human Rights Committee as killed by artillery that day.

The local time of the incident is unknown.

Summary

  • Civilian harm reported
    Yes
  • Civilians reported killed
    3
  • (1 man)
  • Civilians reported injured
    2
  • Airwars civilian harm grading
    Fair
    Reported by two or more credible sources, with likely or confirmed near actions by a belligerent.
  • Suspected attacker
    US-led Coalition

Sources (6) [ collapse]

Geolocation notes (1) [ collapse]

Reports of the incident mention strikes in multiple locations in the Al Hadika al Baidaa neighbourhood in western Raqqa: the Na’im roundabout, Amassi street, Jumaili district and the area area the Imam Al Nuwani mosque. One source mentions casualties in the White Garden (الحدیقة البیضاء) area, for which the coordinates are: 35.9605703, 38.9976883

  • Na'im roundabout, Amassi street, Jumaili district, the Imam Al Nuwani mosque and the White Garden in Raqqa

    Imagery:
    © 2018 Google

US-led Coalition Assessment:

  • Suspected belligerent
    US-led Coalition
  • US-led Coalition position on incident
    Non credible / Unsubstantiated
    Insufficient information to assess that, more likely than not, a Coalition strike resulted in civilian casualties.
  • Reason for non-credible assessment
    Insufficient information on the time and location
  • Civilian deaths conceded
    None
  • Civilian injuries conceded
    None
  • Stated location
    near Raqqah, Syria
    Nearest population center
  • Location accuracy
    100 m
  • MGRS coordinate
    37SDV997795
    Military Grid Reference System

Civilian casualty statements

US-led Coalition
  • Jun 28, 2018
  • The report contains insufficient information of the time, location and details to assess its credibility

Original strike reports

US-led Coalition

For September 8th – 9th, the Coalition reported: “Near Raqqah, 40 strikes engaged 11 ISIS tactical units and destroyed 24 fighting positons, four logistics node, two vehicles, an ISIS communication line, a mortar system, a command and control node and suppressed four fighting positions.” It was additionally reported that “On Sept. 8, near Raqqah, 20 strikes engaged 11 ISIS tactical units; destroyed 15 vehicles, six logistics nodes, four fighting positions, and an IED; and suppressed three fighting positions.”

For September 9th - 10th, the Coalition reported: "Near Raqqah , 34 strikes for eight ISIS tactical units; destroyed 21 fighting positions, 16 vehicles, heavy machinery guns, two command and control nodes, a logistics node, and engineering equipment; and suppressed six fighting positions". It later reported, "In Syria, on Sept. 10 , Coalition military forces conducted 26 strikes consisting of 28 engagements against ISIS targets. Near Raqqah , 23 strikes for eight ISIS tactical units; destroyed 20 fighting positions, two logistics nodes, and a vehicle; and suppressed two fighting positions"

Summary

  • Civilian harm reported
    Yes
  • Civilians reported killed
    3
  • (1 man)
  • Civilians reported injured
    2
  • Airwars civilian harm grading
    Fair
    Reported by two or more credible sources, with likely or confirmed near actions by a belligerent.
  • Suspected attacker
    US-led Coalition

Sources (6) [ collapse]

Incident Code

CS023

Incident date

November 7, 2014

Location

near At-Tanak Oilfield, Syria, Deir ez-Zor, Syria

Geolocation

35.12527, 40.42864 Note: The accuracy of this location is to Village level. Continue to map

Airwars assessment

In its January 25th 2018 civilian casualty report, the Coalition reported that a civilian casualties allegation near At-Tanak is currently being assessed: “#1 Nov. 7, 2014 near At-Tanak Oilfield, Syria via regional human rights organization report.”

Further research by our Syria team indicated that this incident was in fact previously known to Airwars, but had not been linked to this specific location. At the time, a single source, the Violations Documentation Center, claimed that two male civilians, from the same family, were killed during a coalition airstrike on the village of Al Zir.

This source was initially archived as separate incident S021. Further research found more than a dozen of other sources corroborating the death of the two victims, all stating the airstrike took place near al Tanak oil field in al Sha’itat desert. Subsequently, Airwars merged the two separate events into incident S023a on February 22nd, 2018.

On the 10th and 11th of November, a couple of sources reported the death of one civilian male Abd Al Kader Ibrahim Al Saleh. We initially had this as a separate incident that took place on November 10th S025 but further research revealed this as the same incident. Syrian Human Rights committee specified that he died “due to injuries sustained in a coalition airstrike on al Tanak oil fields” a few days earlier.

On the 11th another male civilian Rashed Hamdan Al Abd al Jassem was reported killed in alleged coalition raids on ‘one of the oil fields in the eastern countryside a few days ago’. We have this listed as a separate incident [CS028] but there is a chance these two incidents are linked.

When Deir Ezzor Under Fire reported on the incident, they stated that it happened “an hour ago”, indicating that the airstrike allegedly took place around 11pm local time. Most sources identified the “International Alliance” or the US-led “Arab-International Alliance” as the culprit.

In their February 2020 civilian casualty report, the US-led Coalition assessed reports that they were responsible for civilian harm in this strike as “non-credible”, stating that after a review of all available records it was determined that, more likely than not, civilian casualties did not occur as a result of a Coalition action.

The incident occured at 23:00:00 local time.

The victims were named as:

Family members (1)

Family members (1)

Adult male killed

Family members (1)

Adult male killed

Summary

  • Civilian harm reported
    Yes
  • Civilians reported killed
    3
  • (3 men)
  • Airwars civilian harm grading
    Fair
    Reported by two or more credible sources, with likely or confirmed near actions by a belligerent.
  • Suspected attacker
    US-led Coalition

Sources (25) [ collapse]

US-led Coalition Assessment:

  • Suspected belligerent
    US-led Coalition
  • US-led Coalition position on incident
    Non credible / Unsubstantiated
    Insufficient information to assess that, more likely than not, a Coalition strike resulted in civilian casualties.
  • Reason for non-credible assessment
    Other
  • Civilian deaths conceded
    None
  • Civilian injuries conceded
    None
  • MGRS coordinate
    37SFU681648
    Military Grid Reference System

Civilian casualty statements

US-led Coalition
  • Feb 2, 2020
  • Nov. 7, 2014, near At-Tanak Oilfield, Syria via Syrian Network for Human Rights report. After a review of all available records it was determined that, more likely than not, civilian casualties did not occur as a result of a Coalition action. 1815 37SFU681648

Original strike reports

US-led Coalition

The coalition has confirmed ten airstrikes in the vicinity of Dayr az-Zawr between November 7th-10th 2014, noting: “Eight airstrikes southeast of Dayr Az Zawr damaged several structures of an ISIL oil collection facility which was used to trans-load oil for the black market. Two airstrikes east of Dayr Az Zawr damaged an ISIL oil collection point.“

Summary

  • Civilian harm reported
    Yes
  • Civilians reported killed
    3
  • (3 men)
  • Airwars civilian harm grading
    Fair
    Reported by two or more credible sources, with likely or confirmed near actions by a belligerent.
  • Suspected attacker
    US-led Coalition

Sources (25) [ collapse]

Incident Code

CI461

Incident date

February 15, 2017

Location

حي المطاحن, Mosul, Al-Matahin / Mills, Nineveh, Iraq

Geolocation

36.3380482, 43.0899453 Note: The accuracy of this location is to Neighbourhood/area level. Continue to map

Airwars assessment

Local sources said that three displaced civilians living in a restaurant were killed and six others were injured after Coalition airstrikes targeted the Mills area at the right side of Mosul.

A journalist told Yaqein: “aircraft of the international coalition bombed a building located in the Mills area at the right side to the city of Mosul, instantly killing three people and wounding six others. He added that the people of the area rushed to the targeted place and pulled the victims from the rubble, and transported the injured to the hospital to receive immediate treatment, and [took] the dead bodies to the forensic medicine department.”

One of the victims was later named by Jalawla Now as a three year old girl called Isra.

The local time of the incident is unknown.

The victims were named as:

Isra
3 years old female killed

Summary

  • Civilian harm reported
    Yes
  • Civilians reported killed
    3
  • Civilians reported injured
    6
  • Airwars civilian harm grading
    Fair
    Reported by two or more credible sources, with likely or confirmed near actions by a belligerent.
  • Suspected attacker
    US-led Coalition

Sources (4) [ collapse]

Media
from sources (1) [ collapse]

  • Image of Isra (via Jalwala Now)
CJTF–OIR Declassified Assessment and Press Release

Attached to this civilian harm incident is a provisional reconciliation of the Pentagon's declassified assessment of this civilian harm allegation, based on matching date and locational information.

The declassified documents were obtained by Azmat Khan and the New York Times through Freedom of Information requests and lawsuits filed since March 2017, and are included alongside the corresponding press release published by the Pentagon. Airwars is currently analysing the contents of each file, and will update our own assessments accordingly.

Declassified Assessment Press Release

US-led Coalition Assessment:

  • Suspected belligerent
    US-led Coalition
  • US-led Coalition position on incident
    Non credible / Unsubstantiated
    Insufficient information to assess that, more likely than not, a Coalition strike resulted in civilian casualties.
  • Reason for non-credible assessment
    Insufficient evidence of civilian harm
  • Civilian deaths conceded
    None
  • Civilian injuries conceded
    None
  • Stated location
    near Mosul, Iraq
    Nearest population center

Civilian casualty statements

US-led Coalition
  • Oct 27, 2017
  • After a review of available information and strike video it was assessed that there is insufficient evidence to find that civilians were harmed in this strike.

Original strike reports

US-led Coalition

For February 14th-15th the Coalition publicly stated: “Near Mosul, three strikes engaged an ISIS tactical unit; destroyed three VBIED facilities, two IED facilities, a weapons facility, an ISIS-held building, an excavator, a supply cache, and a command and control node; damaged five supply routes and a supply cache; and suppressed three mortar teams.”

Summary

  • Civilian harm reported
    Yes
  • Civilians reported killed
    3
  • Civilians reported injured
    6
  • Airwars civilian harm grading
    Fair
    Reported by two or more credible sources, with likely or confirmed near actions by a belligerent.
  • Suspected attacker
    US-led Coalition

Sources (4) [ collapse]