US Forces in Somalia

US Forces in Somalia

Library image of an armed Reaper drone, December 2019 (US Air Force/ Senior Sergeant Haley Stevens)

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Incident Code

USSOM083

Incident date

July 29, 2017

Location

Tortoroow, Lower Shabelle, Somalia

Geolocation

2.25045, 44.69117 Note: The accuracy of this location is to Village level. Continue to map

Airwars assessment

On November 17th, US Africa Command sent the Bureau of Investigative Journalism a list of previously unreported actions, which included this strike.

An AFRICOM spokesperson explained that their goal “is to be as transparent as possible while taking into account operational security, force protection and diplomatic sensitivities.” It therefore did not proactively release information about all of its strikes. It was limited to confirming or denying US operations took place when asked directly for those strikes that were not cleared to be reported in press releases.

The spokesperson would not say specifically where the attacks hit, telling the Bureau the best they could say was all the unreported strikes were conducted in southern Somalia, “for operational security reasons”.

However, in a subsequent FOIA response obtained by journalist Joshua Eaton in May 2019, AFRICOM confirmed it had struck what it says was an al Shabaab leader (“an al-Shabaab named objective”), in the vicinity of Tortoroow on July 29th 2017.

The local time of the incident is unknown.

Summary

  • Strike status
    Declared strike
  • Strike type
    Airstrike
  • Civilian harm reported
    No
  • Civilians reported killed
    Unknown
  • Cause of injury / death
    Heavy weapons and explosive munitions
  • Known attacker
    US Forces
  • Known target
    Al-Shabaab
  • Belligerents reported killed
    1

Sources (2) [ collapse]

Geolocation notes

Reports of the incident mention that the strike occurred in Southern Somalia, in the vicinity of the village of Tortoroow, for which the coordinates are: 2.25045, 44.69117. Due to limited information available to Airwars, we were unable to verify the location further.

US Forces Assessment:

  • Known belligerent
    US Forces
  • US Forces position on incident
    Not yet assessed

Original strike reports

US Forces

Via email from Africom to BIJ, November 17th, 2017:

"The best I can do on the strikes that were not on your list, for operational security reasons, is say they were all conducted in southern Somalia."

In a subsequent FOIA response obtained by journalist Joshua Eaton in May 2019, AFRICOM confirmed it had struck what it says was an al Shabaab leader ("an al-Shabaab named objective"), in the vicinity of Tortoroow on July 29th 2017.

Summary

  • Strike status
    Declared strike
  • Strike type
    Airstrike
  • Civilian harm reported
    No
  • Civilians reported killed
    Unknown
  • Cause of injury / death
    Heavy weapons and explosive munitions
  • Known attacker
    US Forces
  • Known target
    Al-Shabaab
  • Belligerents reported killed
    1

Incident Code

USSOM158

Incident date

November 19, 2018

Location

Debatcile, Mudug, Somalia

Geolocation

5.172335, 48.123686 Note: The accuracy of this location is to Neighbourhood/area level. Continue to map

Airwars assessment

On November 20th 2019, AFRICOM reported that it had “conducted two (2) airstrikes in the vicinity of Debatscile, Somalia targeting al-Shabaab militants on November 19, 2018”. These are recorded as separate events, with the other that day near Quy Cad.

AFRICOM asserted: “We currently assess these airstrikes did not injure or kill any civilians.” It also claimed that this “second, separate airstrike killed ten (10) militants”.

A US defense official told CNN that they were both carried out by a drone.  Voice of America noted that “Local sources tell VOA’s Somali Service that the attacks took place in the vicinity of Dabad Shil, about 60 kilometers north of Harardhere, a town in the Mudug region. Locals told VOA Somali that the strikes targeted al-Shabab vehicles and militias.”

In a subsequent FOIA response obtained by journalist Joshua Eaton in May 2019, AFRICOM confirmed it had struck what it says were “al Shabaab fighters”, in the vicinity of Debatscile, Somalia.

The local time of the incident is unknown.

Summary

  • Strike status
    Declared strike
  • Strike type
    Airstrike, Drone Strike
  • Civilian harm reported
    No
  • Civilians reported killed
    0
  • Cause of injury / death
    Heavy weapons and explosive munitions
  • Known attacker
    US Forces
  • Known target
    Al-Shabaab
  • Belligerents reported killed
    10

Sources (4) [ collapse]

Media
from sources (1) [ collapse]

Geolocation notes

Reports of the incident mention that the strike took place in the vicinity of the village of Debatcile, for which the coordinates are: 5.172335, 48.123686. Due to limited information and satellite imagery available to Airwars, we were unable to verify the location further.

US Forces Assessment:

  • Known belligerent
    US Forces
  • US Forces position on incident
    Not yet assessed

Original strike reports

US Forces
Official source

Al-Shabaab Degraded by U.S., Federal Government of Somalia

In coordination with the Federal Government of Somalia, U.S. forces conducted two (2) airstrikes in the vicinity of Debatscile, Somalia targeting al-Shabaab militants on November 19, 2018.

We currently assess the first airstrike killed twenty-seven (27) militants. This precision strike was a planned and deliberate action.

We currently assess the second, separate airstrike killed ten (10) militants.

We currently assess these airstrikes did not injure or kill any civilians.

These precision airstrikes were conducted in support of the Federal Government of Somalia as it continues to degrade al-Shabaab. Airstrikes reduce al-Shabaab’s ability to plot future attacks, disrupt its leadership networks, and degrade its freedom of maneuver within the region.

Alongside our Somali and international partners, we are committed to preventing al-Shabaab from taking advantage of safe havens from which they can build capacity and attack the people of Somalia. In particular, the group uses portions of southern and central Somalia to plot and direct terror attacks, steal humanitarian aid, extort the local populace to fund its operations, and shelter radical terrorists.

The desired end state in East Africa is one in which terrorist organizations cannot destabilize Somalia and its neighboring states, nor threaten the interests of the U.S. and its international allies in the region. Accordingly, U.S. Africa Command will continue to work with its partners to transfer the responsibility for long-term security in Somalia from the African Union Mission to Somalia (AMISOM) to the Federal Government of Somalia and its Member States.

Summary

  • Strike status
    Declared strike
  • Strike type
    Airstrike, Drone Strike
  • Civilian harm reported
    No
  • Civilians reported killed
    0
  • Cause of injury / death
    Heavy weapons and explosive munitions
  • Known attacker
    US Forces
  • Known target
    Al-Shabaab
  • Belligerents reported killed
    10

Sources (4) [ collapse]

Incident Code

USSOM202

Incident date

March 6, 2019

Location

Busaar/Waraha Kakuma, Gedo, Somalia

Geolocation

2.67191, 41.32213 Note: The accuracy of this location is to Village level. Continue to map

Airwars assessment

A possible US or Kenyan airstrike at Buusaar or Waraha-Kakuma left “scores” of al Shabaab fighters dead, according to local media sources.

A regional official who asked Mareeg to remain anonymous, told the local news organisation that the strike had destroyed al Shabaab’s base in ‘Buzer, west Somalia.’

The report did not note how many militants were thought to have been killed in the strike. Airwars interprets “scores” as spanning from ten to forty, though these figures should be considered subject to significant levels of uncertainty.

It was unclear who carried out the bombing according to Mareeg, although it reported it as a “suspected US airstrike”. There are no known reports about civilian harm.

Halgan Media tweeted: “Local pastoralists in Gedo province #Somalia reveal an unidentified aircraft conducted a strike near the village of Buusaar in Gedo province. No Government has claimed responsibility for the attack but the suspicion lays with the Americans and KDF”

A second source claimed the morning strike took place at Waraha-Kuma: “#BREAKING new Airstrike reported in Waraha-Kakuma Village in Gedo Region Southern #Somalia.”

Asked whether it had been responsible for this event, in February 2020 a senior AFRICOM official told Airwars that this was not the case. However, this may not preclude actions by the CIA which conducts its own undeclared strikes in Somalia.

The incident occured between 12:00 am and 9:00 am local time.

Summary

  • Strike status
    Contested strike
  • Strike type
    Airstrike
  • Civilian harm reported
    No
  • Civilians reported killed
    Unknown
  • Causes of injury / death
    Heavy weapons and explosive munitions, Unknown
  • Suspected attackers
    US Forces, Kenyan Military Forces
  • Suspected target
    Al-Shabaab
  • Belligerents reported killed
    10–40

Sources (1) [ collapse]

Media
from sources (3) [ collapse]

Geolocation notes

Reports of the incident mention that the strike took place near the village Busaar in the Gedo region. The coordinates for Busaar are: 2.67191, 41.32213. Another source mentions that the strike took place near Waraha Kakuma, however, due to limited information and satellite imagery available to Airwars, we were unable to verify the location of this area.

US Forces Assessment:

  • Suspected belligerent
    US Forces
  • US Forces position on incident
    Not yet assessed

Kenyan Military Forces Assessment:

  • Suspected belligerent
    Kenyan Military Forces
  • Kenyan Military Forces position on incident
    Not yet assessed

Summary

  • Strike status
    Contested strike
  • Strike type
    Airstrike
  • Civilian harm reported
    No
  • Civilians reported killed
    Unknown
  • Causes of injury / death
    Heavy weapons and explosive munitions, Unknown
  • Suspected attackers
    US Forces, Kenyan Military Forces
  • Suspected target
    Al-Shabaab
  • Belligerents reported killed
    10–40

Sources (1) [ collapse]

Incident Code

USSOM056

Incident date

May 31, 2016

Location

Farwamo, near Bulogadud, Lower Juba, Somalia

Geolocation

1.47922, 42.528713 Note: The accuracy of this location is to Village level. Continue to map

Airwars assessment

Up to 16 al Shabaab fighters died in an operation reportedly carried out by Somali forces with US support, multiple sources said. The US claimed at the time that at the time that Somali forces alone were responsible for the kinetic actions. However, a FOIA response obtained in 2019 confirmed that the US had in fact carried out a strike in the vicinity on an “al Shabaab named objective”. There are currently no reports of civilian harm associated with this incident.

Four commanders were among up to 16 reported dead, including a senior figure, Mohamed Mohamud Ali, who was said to have been one of several fighters responsible for the killing of 148 students in their dormitories at Garissa University in eastern Kenya on August 2nd 2015.

Initial reports varied but several suggested US forces conducted the attack. Others said the US had assisted African troops with helicopters. US spokesperson Lieutenant Colonel Michelle Baldanza told the Bureau of Investigative Journalism: “US forces supported this Somali-led operation in an advise and assist role”.

According to Capital FM, “Sixteen armed men, four of them senior commanders including Mohamed Mohamud Ali known as Dulyadin… were killed by the Somali commandos and the special forces of the Jubaland,” [said] Abdirashid Janan, minister of state security for Jubaland, an autonomous region in southern Somalia.”

Somali officials first claimed that al Shabaab member Mohammed Dulyadeen was killed in the attack. The US was more circumspect. “We have received initial reports of a ground operation conducted in southern Somalia last night by the Somali National Army,” Baldanza told the Bureau. “The operation may have resulted in the death of al Shabaab member Mohammed Dulyadeen, also known as ‘Mohammed Kuno’ and ‘Kuno Gamadere. We are working with Somali officials to assess the results of the operation and will provide further details when appropriate.”

US Africa Command were more forthright on June 8th 2016, reporting “further assessment by US forces also indicates that Dulyadeen was killed in the operation.” That AFRICOM press release makes no mention of a US strike but says “a Somali National Army unit led a ground operation near Gaduud, Somalia”.

However, in a subsequent FOIA response obtained by journalist Joshua Eaton in May 2019, AFRICOM reported it had struck what it says was an “al Shabaab named objective”, in the Gaduud area of Somalia.

Al Shabaab itself confirmed Dulyadeen had died on June 21st 2016. The group said: “We console ourselves and our nation for the martyrdom of the Muslim knight commander Sheik Mohamed Mohamud Ali (Dulyadin). May Allah accept him and lift him to paradise.”

The attack reportedly took place in Farwamo village, 30km north of the port of Kismayo.

The incident occured during the night.

Summary

  • Strike status
    Declared strike
  • Strike type
    Airstrike, Counter-Terrorism Action (Ground)
  • Civilian harm reported
    No
  • Civilians reported killed
    Unknown
  • Causes of injury / death
    Heavy weapons and explosive munitions, Small arms and light weapons
  • Known attackers
    US Forces, Somali Military Forces
  • Known target
    Al-Shabaab
  • Belligerents reported killed
    16

Sources (5) [ collapse]

Media
from sources (1) [ collapse]

  • Mohamed Mohamud Ali known as Dulyadin (via FILE/Capital FM)

Geolocation notes (1) [ collapse]

Reports of the incident mention that the strike targeted the village Farwamo near Bulogudud, 30 kilometres north of the city Kismayo. A subsequent FOIA response pointed to the area around the village Gaduud (1.478266, 42.496045). Due to limited information and satellite imagery available to Airwars, we were unable to verify the location of the village Farwamo. The coordinates for Bulogudud are: 1.47922, 42.528713.

  • The villages Gaduud and Bulogadud

    Imagery:
    Google Earth

US Forces Assessment:

  • Known belligerent
    US Forces
  • US Forces position on incident
    Not yet assessed

Original strike reports

US Forces
Official source

An AFRICOM press release on June 8th stated:

STUTTGART, Germany -- U.S. Africa Command has completed assessment of two recent actions against al-Shabaab targets in Somalia.
On May 27, 2016 U.S. forces carried out an airstrike in south-central Somalia targeting Abdullahi Haji Da'ud a senior military commander for al-Shabaab. The final assessment of that operation concludes that Da’ud was struck and killed in the airstrike.

On May 31, a Somali National Army unit led a ground operation near Gaduud, Somalia, with the intent to capture extremists associated with al-Shabaab. An initial assessment of that operation by Somali authorities indicated that it resulted in the death of al-Shabaab member Mohammed Dulyadeen, also known as "Mohammed Kuno” and “Kuno Gamadere." Further assessment by U.S. forces also indicates that Dulyadeen was killed in the operation.

We are confident that the removal from the terrorist network of these two experienced al-Shabaab leaders will disrupt near-term attack planning, potentially saving many innocent lives.

U.S. forces remain committed to supporting the Federal Government of Somalia, the Somali National Army, and our African Union Mission in Somalia (AMISOM) partners in defeating al-Shabaab and establishing a safe and secure environment in Somalia.


In a subsequent FOIA response obtained by journalist Joshua Eaton in May 2019, AFRICOM reported it had struck what it says was an "al Shabaab named objective", in the Gaduud, Somali.

Somali Military Forces Assessment:

  • Known belligerent
    Somali Military Forces
  • Somali Military Forces position on incident
    Not yet assessed

Original strike reports

Somali Military Forces
Official source

“Sixteen armed men, four of them senior commanders including Mohamed Mohamud Ali known as Dulyadin… were killed by the Somali commandos and the special forces of the Jubaland,” Abdirashid Janan, minister of state security for Jubaland, an autonomous region in southern Somalia.

Summary

  • Strike status
    Declared strike
  • Strike type
    Airstrike, Counter-Terrorism Action (Ground)
  • Civilian harm reported
    No
  • Civilians reported killed
    Unknown
  • Causes of injury / death
    Heavy weapons and explosive munitions, Small arms and light weapons
  • Known attackers
    US Forces, Somali Military Forces
  • Known target
    Al-Shabaab
  • Belligerents reported killed
    16

Sources (5) [ collapse]

Incident Code

USSOM148

Incident date

October 2–3, 2018

Location

Baasra, Lower Shabelle, Somalia

Geolocation

2.310968, 45.267909 Note: The accuracy of this location is to Village level. Continue to map

Airwars assessment

According to a single source, an airstrike by an unknown party hit the strategic village of Basra in Middle Shebelle.

Goobjoog News stated that “Reports indicate that Airstrikes hit last night at Basra village in the Middle Shabelle Somalia. Residents of Basra village told Goobjoog News there were heavy attacks in the village amid reports the attacks were targeting Al-Shabaab militants in the area. There were casualties caused by the attack but they were not still identified.

Several Al-Shabaab hideouts were recently hit airstrikes and destroyed in Middle Jubba and Lower Shabelle regions with an undisclosed number of its fighters killed.”

No additional sources are presently known for this claimed event.

The incident occured during the night.

Summary

  • Strike status
    Single source claim
  • Strike type
    Airstrike
  • Civilian harm reported
    No
  • Civilians reported killed
    Unknown
  • Suspected attackers
    US Forces, US Forces
  • Suspected target
    Al-Shabaab

Sources (1) [ collapse]

Geolocation notes

Reports of the incident mention that the strike took place in the village of Baasra, for which the coordinates are: 2.310968, 45.267909. Due to limited information and satellite imagery available to Airwars, we were unable to verify the location further.

US Forces Assessment:

  • Suspected belligerent
    US Forces
  • US Forces position on incident
    Not yet assessed

US Forces Assessment:

  • Suspected belligerent
    US Forces
  • US Forces position on incident
    Not yet assessed

Summary

  • Strike status
    Single source claim
  • Strike type
    Airstrike
  • Civilian harm reported
    No
  • Civilians reported killed
    Unknown
  • Suspected attackers
    US Forces, US Forces
  • Suspected target
    Al-Shabaab

Sources (1) [ collapse]

Incident Code

USSOM262

Incident date

December 29, 2019

Location

Vicinity of Kunyo Barrow, Lower Shabelle, Somalia

Airwars assessment

In retaliatory strikes against al Al Shabaab for a mass casualty bombing in Mogadishu a day earlier, the United States said that it had conducted three strikes against al Shbaab commanders, killing four people in total.

This entry relates to one of two strikes in the vicinity of Kunyo Barrow in Lower Shabelle.

According to an AFRICOM press release issued on the same day, “In coordination with the Federal Government of Somalia, U.S. Africa Command conducted three (3) airstrikes in two (2) locations targeting al-Shabaab militants in the vicinity of Qunyo Barrow and Caliyoow Barrow, Somalia, respectively, Dec. 29.”

“Initial assessment concluded two airstrikes killed two (2) terrorists and destroyed two (2) vehicles in Qunyo Barrow; and one airstrike killed two (2) terrorists in Caliyoow Barrow. We currently assess no civilians were injured or killed as a result of these airstrikes. We comply with the principles of the Law of Armed Conflict during the course of our operations to ensure the safety of civilians.”

It added that “These precision airstrikes targeted al-Shabaab militants responsible for terrorist acts against innocent Somali citizens and coordinating with al-Qaeda.”

In what may be a separate or related incident, according to one local source, Somalia Terror Updates, two strikes took place “in the vicinity of Moqokori in Hiiraan region.” Since this is not in Lower Shabelle this would appear to be a different event.

The alleged al Shabaab suicide bombing on December 28th 2019 caused the largest single loss of civilian life of the year – with at least 78 people slain.

However there was later some doubt over whether al Shabaab was responsible, with VOA reporter Harun Maruf tweeting on December 30th that “Somalia’s intelligence agency says it has submitted a preliminary report indicating that a foreign country ‘planned’ Saturday’s bombing in Mogadishu. NISA didn’t publicly release the evidence pointing towards the involvement of a foreign country.”

The incident was first reported on December 29, 2019 at 3:00 pm by .

Summary

  • Strike status
    Declared strike
  • Strike type
    Airstrike
  • Civilian harm reported
    No
  • Civilians reported killed
    Unknown
  • Cause of injury / death
    Heavy weapons and explosive munitions
  • Known attacker
    US Forces
  • Known target
    Al-Shabaab
  • Belligerents reported killed
    1

Sources (11) [ collapse]

Media
from sources (6) [ collapse]

  • 'We submitted to the national authorities, an initial report indicating that the massacre of the Somali people in Mogadishu, 28 Dec-2019, was planned by a foreign country. In the ongoing investigation, we will work with some of the world's intelligence agencies.'

US Forces Assessment:

  • Known belligerent
    US Forces
  • US Forces position on incident
    Not yet assessed

Summary

  • Strike status
    Declared strike
  • Strike type
    Airstrike
  • Civilian harm reported
    No
  • Civilians reported killed
    Unknown
  • Cause of injury / death
    Heavy weapons and explosive munitions
  • Known attacker
    US Forces
  • Known target
    Al-Shabaab
  • Belligerents reported killed
    1

Sources (11) [ collapse]

Incident Code

USSOM291

Incident date

March 10, 2020

Location

سااكوو, Saakow, Middle Juba, Somalia

Geolocation

1.637795, 42.452829 Note: The accuracy of this location is to Town level. Continue to map

Airwars assessment

A US airstrike targeted Al Shabaab in Saakow, according to local reporting.

Radio Kulmiye said: “Suspected US airstrikes targeted to Al-shabaab compounds in southern Somalia. The attacks destroyed vehicles, camps and killed militants.

According to Somali intelligence officials, the airstrikes carried by unidentified military planes targeted Jilib, Sakow and Bu’ale towns of Middle Jubba region, where Al-shabaab has an active presence and main bases.

At least 14 military vehicles have been destroyed and more militants were killed and wounded, an official told local media anonymously. One of those killed named Aindrus, an Al-shabaab Amniyad operative.”

Somaliweyn also reported shelling in area. However it is unclear from which forces it originated: “The shelling occurred in Jilib, Sakow, Buale, and Salagle districts of the Juba regions, with the shelling targeting al-Shabaab bases in those districts.

Somali government officials say al-Shabaab militants have been killed in the shelling.”

The local time of the incident is unknown.

Summary

  • Strike status
    Contested strike
  • Strike type
    Airstrike
  • Civilian harm reported
    No
  • Civilians reported killed
    Unknown
  • Cause of injury / death
    Heavy weapons and explosive munitions
  • Suspected attackers
    US Forces, Somali Military Forces
  • Suspected target
    Al-Shabaab
  • Belligerents reported injured
    1

Sources (2) [ collapse]

Geolocation notes

Reports of the incident mention the town of Saakow (سااكوو), for which the coordinates are: 1.637795, 42.452829. Due to limited satellite imagery and information available to Airwars, we were unable to verify the location further.

US Forces Assessment:

  • Suspected belligerent
    US Forces
  • US Forces position on incident
    Not yet assessed

Somali Military Forces Assessment:

  • Suspected belligerent
    Somali Military Forces
  • Somali Military Forces position on incident
    Not yet assessed

Summary

  • Strike status
    Contested strike
  • Strike type
    Airstrike
  • Civilian harm reported
    No
  • Civilians reported killed
    Unknown
  • Cause of injury / death
    Heavy weapons and explosive munitions
  • Suspected attackers
    US Forces, Somali Military Forces
  • Suspected target
    Al-Shabaab
  • Belligerents reported injured
    1

Sources (2) [ collapse]

Incident Code

USSOM186a-C

Incident date

February 1, 2019

Location

IVO Janay Abdalle, Lower Juba, Somalia

Geolocation

0.02819, 42.287022 Note: The accuracy of this location is to Village level. Continue to map

Airwars assessment

An unspecified number was allegedly killed by a US strike on Janay Abdalle, which AFRICOM later discounted.

In first quarterly civilian casualty assessment it says: “February 3, 2019, AFRICOM received one allegation from an online media source claiming an unspecified number of civilians were killed from an airstrike in the vicinity of Janay Abdalle, Somalia, on February 1, 2019. The allegation does not state who conducted the airstrike. After review, the allegation was assessed to be unsubstantiated because no U.S military strike took place at the alleged location.”

Airwars was not able to find the original online source.

The local time of the incident is unknown.

Summary

  • Strike status
    Single source claim
  • Strike type
    Airstrike
  • Civilian harm reported
    Yes
  • Civilians reported killed
    2 – 3
  • Cause of injury / death
    Heavy weapons and explosive munitions
  • Airwars civilian harm grading
    Discounted
    Those killed were combatants, or other parties most likely responsible.
  • Suspected attacker
    US Forces

Sources (1) [ collapse]

US Forces Assessment:

  • Suspected belligerent
    US Forces
  • US Forces position on incident
    Non credible / Unsubstantiated
    Insufficient information to assess that, more likely than not, a Coalition strike resulted in civilian casualties.
  • Reason for non-credible assessment
    No Coalition strikes were conducted in the geographical area
  • Civilian deaths conceded
    None
  • Civilian injuries conceded
    None

Original strike reports

US Forces
Official source

February 3, 2019, AFRICOM received one allegation from an online media source claiming an unspecified number of civilians were killed from an airstrike in the vicinity of Janay Abdalle, Somalia, on February 1, 2019. The allegation does not state who conducted the airstrike. After review, the allegation was assessed to be unsubstantiated because no U.S military strike took place at the alleged location.

Summary

  • Strike status
    Single source claim
  • Strike type
    Airstrike
  • Civilian harm reported
    Yes
  • Civilians reported killed
    2 – 3
  • Cause of injury / death
    Heavy weapons and explosive munitions
  • Airwars civilian harm grading
    Discounted
    Those killed were combatants, or other parties most likely responsible.
  • Suspected attacker
    US Forces

Sources (1) [ collapse]