Turkish Military in Iraq & Syria

Turkish Military in Iraq & Syria

An internally displaced Kurdish family in northern Iraq, 2016 (Maranie R. Staab)

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Incident Code

CS387 TS014

Incident date

November 22, 2016

Location

صابويران, Sab Wayran, Aleppo, Syria

Geolocation

36.51741, 37.65538 Note: The accuracy of this location is to Village level. Continue to map

Airwars assessment

Two girls died in a reported Turkish or Coalition airstrike on the village of Sab Wayran near Aleppo, Syria.

Manbij Military Council (linked to the SDF) reported that “two sisters were martyred from the family of Ahmad al Rashid Beish Illo after Turkish occupation planes raided their home in the village of Sab Wayran.” It added that four people were injured.

The Syrian Network instead blamed the attack on the Coalition. However the Assad-controlled SANA news agency said the village had been captured by Turkey and its allies, following clashes with the Kurdish SDF.

In August 2017 the US-led Coalition denied involvement in the event, noting that “After a review of available information it was assessed that no Coalition strikes were conducted in the geographical area of the reported civilian casualties.”

The local time of the incident is unknown.

The victims were named as:

Family members (2)

Amina Ahmad Alo
Child female killed
Shahed Ahmad Alo
Child female killed

The victims were named as:

Sara al Ahmad
3 years years old female injured
Najwa al Ahmad
14 years years old female injured
Khanum Shamlo
35 years years old female injured
Ahmad Saleh
8 years years old male injured

Summary

  • Civilian harm reported
    Yes
  • Civilians reported killed
    2
  • (2 children)
  • Civilians reported injured
    4
  • Airwars civilian harm grading
    Contested
    Competing claims of responsibility e.g. multiple belligerents, or casualties also attributed to ground forces.
  • Suspected attackers
    US-led Coalition, Turkish Military

Sources (4) [ collapse]

Media
from sources (5) [ collapse]

  • Ahmad Saleh, injured in an alleged Coalition and Turkish airstrike on Sab Wayran, 22nd November 2016. (via Manbij Military council)
  • Khanum Shamlo injured in an alleged Coalition and Turkish airstrike on Sab Wayran, 22nd November 2016. (via Manbij Military council)

  • This media contains graphic content. Click to unblur.

    Sara al Ahmad injured in an alleged Coalition and Turkish airstrike on Sab Wayran, 22nd November 2016. (via Manbij Military council)
  • Photograph shows one of the two sisters, Shahad and Amina Ahmad Rashid Beish Illo, killed in an alleged Turkish and Coalition airstrike on Sab Wayran, 22nd November 2016. (via Manbij Military council)
  • Photograph shows one of the two sisters, Shahad and Amina Ahmad Rashid Beish Illo, killed in an alleged Turkish and Coalition airstrike on Sab Wayran, 22nd November 2016. (via Manbij Military council)

Geolocation notes

Reports of the incident mention the village of Sab Wayran (صابويران), for which the generic coordinates are: 36.51741, 37.65538. Due to limited satellite imagery and information available to Airwars, we were unable to verify the location further.

CJTF–OIR Declassified Assessment and Press Release

Attached to this civilian harm incident is a provisional reconciliation of the Pentagon's declassified assessment of this civilian harm allegation, based on matching date and locational information.

The declassified documents were obtained by Azmat Khan and the New York Times through Freedom of Information requests and lawsuits filed since March 2017, and are included alongside the corresponding press release published by the Pentagon. Airwars is currently analysing the contents of each file, and will update our own assessments accordingly.

Declassified Assessment Press Release

US-led Coalition Assessment:

  • Suspected belligerent
    US-led Coalition
  • US-led Coalition position on incident
    Non credible / Unsubstantiated
    Insufficient information to assess that, more likely than not, a Coalition strike resulted in civilian casualties.
  • Reason for non-credible assessment
    No Coalition strikes were conducted in the geographical area
  • Civilian deaths conceded
    None
  • Civilian injuries conceded
    None
  • Stated location
    near Sabwayran, Syria
    Nearest population center

Civilian casualty statements

US-led Coalition
  • Aug 4, 2017

  • After a review of available information it was assessed that no Coalition strikes were conducted in the geographical area of the reported civilian casualties.

Original strike reports

US-led Coalition
Official source

For November 22nd-23rd 2016 the Coalition reported no strikes in Aleppo governorate.

Turkish Military Assessment:

  • Suspected belligerent
    Turkish Military
  • Turkish Military position on incident
    Not yet assessed

Summary

  • Civilian harm reported
    Yes
  • Civilians reported killed
    2
  • (2 children)
  • Civilians reported injured
    4
  • Airwars civilian harm grading
    Contested
    Competing claims of responsibility e.g. multiple belligerents, or casualties also attributed to ground forces.
  • Suspected attackers
    US-led Coalition, Turkish Military

Sources (4) [ collapse]

Incident Code

TS504

Incident date

May 9, 2022

Location

منبجالمحسنلي, Mihsenli village, Manbij, Aleppo, Syria

Geolocation

36.649167, 37.883056 Note: The accuracy of this location is to Village level. Continue to map

Airwars assessment

At least one civilian was injured in alleged Turkish shelling and/or strikes on Mihsenli village in northern Manbij on May 9, 2022.

According to Hawar News, a civilian was injured when Turkish forces shelled rural Manbij. A statement released by the Media Office of the Manbij Military Council reported that the civilian was injured in Mihsenli village in northern Manbij and he was transferred to the hospital for treatment.

Xeber24 added that Turkish forces used “heavy and medium weapons” in their attack on Mihsenli village. All of the sources that reported on the incident attributed the strikes to Turkey.

The local time of the incident is unknown.

Summary

  • Strike status
    Likely strike
  • Strike type
    Airstrike and/or Artillery
  • Civilian harm reported
    Yes
  • Civilians reported killed
    Unknown
  • Civilians reported injured
    1
  • Cause of injury / death
    Heavy weapons and explosive munitions
  • Airwars civilian harm grading
    Fair
    Reported by two or more credible sources, with likely or confirmed near actions by a belligerent.
  • Suspected attacker
    Turkish Military

Sources (3) [ collapse]

Geolocation notes

Reports of the incident mention the village of Mihsenli (المحسنلي), for which the generic coordinates are:36.649167, 37.883056. Due to limited satellite imagery and information available to Airwars, we were unable to verify the location further.

Turkish Military Assessment:

  • Suspected belligerent
    Turkish Military
  • Turkish Military position on incident
    Not yet assessed

Summary

  • Strike status
    Likely strike
  • Strike type
    Airstrike and/or Artillery
  • Civilian harm reported
    Yes
  • Civilians reported killed
    Unknown
  • Civilians reported injured
    1
  • Cause of injury / death
    Heavy weapons and explosive munitions
  • Airwars civilian harm grading
    Fair
    Reported by two or more credible sources, with likely or confirmed near actions by a belligerent.
  • Suspected attacker
    Turkish Military

Sources (3) [ collapse]

Incident Code

TS537

Incident date

July 30, 2022

Location

السلماسه, Al Salmsaa, Hassakah, Syria

Geolocation

36.640463, 40.292959 Note: The accuracy of this location is to Village level. Continue to map

Airwars assessment

Two civilians were injured, one young man and a girl, in alleged Turkish shelling in the village of Al-Salamsa, in the countryside of Tal Tamr, in Al-Hassakah, Syria on July 30th 2022.

The injured were named by ANHA as Majda Khader al-Bibi, aged 16, and her brother, Hatem Khader al-Bibi, aged 24. They were reportedly taken to hospital.  A medical source at the Legarin Hospital told North Press Agency that they had recieved treatment and that their condition was stable.

The bombing was also reported to cause damage to civilian homes in the village.

The local time of the incident is unknown.

The victims were named as:

Family members (2)

Majda Khader al-Bibi
16 years old female injured
Hatem Khader al-Bibi
24 years old male

Summary

  • Strike status
    Likely strike
  • Strike type
    Airstrike and/or Artillery
  • Civilian harm reported
    Yes
  • Civilians reported killed
    Unknown
  • Civilians reported injured
    2
  • Cause of injury / death
    Heavy weapons and explosive munitions
  • Airwars civilian harm grading
    Fair
    Reported by two or more credible sources, with likely or confirmed near actions by a belligerent.
  • Suspected attacker
    Turkish Military

Sources (6) [ collapse]

Media
from sources (2) [ collapse]

  • Injured reportedly from Turkish shelling on Tal Tamr in Al-Hassakah on July 30th 2022 (Image via الجوكر نيوز Joker news / Facebook)
  • Injured reportedly from Turkish shelling on Tal Tamr in Al-Hassakah on July 30th 2022 (Image via الجوكر نيوز Joker news / Facebook)

Geolocation notes

Reports of the incident mention the village of Al Salmsaa (السلماسة), for which the generic coordinates are: 36.640463, 40.292959. Due to limited satellite imagery and information available to Airwars, we were unable to verify the location further.

Turkish Military Assessment:

  • Suspected belligerent
    Turkish Military
  • Turkish Military position on incident
    Not yet assessed

Summary

  • Strike status
    Likely strike
  • Strike type
    Airstrike and/or Artillery
  • Civilian harm reported
    Yes
  • Civilians reported killed
    Unknown
  • Civilians reported injured
    2
  • Cause of injury / death
    Heavy weapons and explosive munitions
  • Airwars civilian harm grading
    Fair
    Reported by two or more credible sources, with likely or confirmed near actions by a belligerent.
  • Suspected attacker
    Turkish Military

Sources (6) [ collapse]

Incident Code

TS564

Incident date

November 6, 2022

Location

قامشلو, Qamishlo, Al-Hasakah, Syria

Airwars assessment

Three civilians, including an unknown number of children, were reported injured as a result an alleged Turkish drone strike on a vehicle on Al-Hizam Al-Ghaby Road, near Al-Saada School in Al-Qamishly city in Al-Hasakah countryside, Syria, on November 6th 2022.

Two to three SDF fighters, including a commander and a driver, were also reportedly killed in this attack.  Hussein Bari reported that one SDF member killed was the “fighter” Kamal Muhammad Ali, possibly also known as “Mitan Shorsch”.

The media center of the Syrian Democratic Forces issued this statement: “The Turkish occupation’s attacks against civilians’ places and properties continue, and yesterday, Sunday, November 6, and in thevening hours when a fighter from our forces was spending his vacation in his home and was walking around with two of his civilian comrades, they were targeted by the Turkish occupation army.”

“The car in which our fighter, “Mitan Shorsch” and his two companions, was travelling, was targeted by a drone of the Turkish occupation army, which resulted in the death of our comrade Mitan, and the injury of civilians.”

 

 

The local time of the incident is unknown.

Summary

  • Strike status
    Likely strike
  • Strike type
    Airstrike, Drone Strike
  • Civilian harm reported
    Yes
  • Civilians reported killed
    Unknown
  • Civilians reported injured
    3
  • Cause of injury / death
    Heavy weapons and explosive munitions
  • Airwars civilian harm grading
    Fair
    Reported by two or more credible sources, with likely or confirmed near actions by a belligerent.
  • Suspected attacker
    Turkish Military
  • Belligerents reported killed
    2–3

Sources (8) [ collapse]

Media
from sources (3) [ collapse]

  • "QAMISHLI, Syria (North Press) - A fighter of the Syrian Democratic Forces (SDF) lost his life after a Turkish drone hit his car in the city of Qamishli in northeast Syria on Sunday." (North Press Agency)
  • An alleged Turkish drone strike hit a vehicle, injuring three civilian passerbys on November 6th 2022 (Image via Dilovan Çeto / Facebook)
  • "The martyrdom of the fighter Kamal Muhammad Ali, son of the city of Sere-Kaniye, during the bombing of a Turkish march on a car in the city of Qamishlo", SDF militant reported killed (Image via حسين بري Hussein Bari / Facebook)

Turkish Military Assessment:

  • Suspected belligerent
    Turkish Military
  • Turkish Military position on incident
    Not yet assessed

Summary

  • Strike status
    Likely strike
  • Strike type
    Airstrike, Drone Strike
  • Civilian harm reported
    Yes
  • Civilians reported killed
    Unknown
  • Civilians reported injured
    3
  • Cause of injury / death
    Heavy weapons and explosive munitions
  • Airwars civilian harm grading
    Fair
    Reported by two or more credible sources, with likely or confirmed near actions by a belligerent.
  • Suspected attacker
    Turkish Military
  • Belligerents reported killed
    2–3

Sources (8) [ collapse]

Incident Code

TS608

Incident date

July 5, 2023

Location

رأس العين, Ras al Ain, Hasakah, Syria

Geolocation

36.849005, 40.071581 Note: The accuracy of this location is to City level. Continue to map

Airwars assessment

At around noon on the 5th July, 2023, two children were killed and up to seven others, including a woman and a child were injured in an alleged armed clash between two of the Turkish-backed armed opposition factions at the al-Qaws checkpoint at the entrance of the Turkish-occupied city of Ras al Ain in Hasakah.

According to the Syrian Observatory for Human Rights, two children were killed and seven others, including a woman, were injured. Orient News reported that 11 year old Abdul Rahman Hamid Al-Ahmad and 14 year-old Hassan Ali Al-Obeid were allegedly killed in the incident. However, the Syrian Observatory of Human Rights stated that a 9-year old was killed, whilst his mother, a child and three civilians were injured. Orient News added that five people were injured, and the injured woman was transferred to Turkey due to her critical condition.

The Syrian Observatory for Human Rights reported that the clashes broke out between the Sultan Murad faction and the ‘Civilian Police’ involving medium and heavy weapons. The report also indicated that the dispute broke out at the checkpoint due to the Civilian Police preventing members of the faction from crossing the border. Subsequently, reinforcements from the Civilian Police and Turkish intelligence were requested to control the situation, in accordance with a news report by the North Press.

Orient News reported that the policeman Ismail Al-Jadaan Al-Aboud was also killed in addition to the two children, while the Syrian Observatory for Human Rights reported that three members of the military police, including a minor, were killed and two members of the Sultan Murad faction were injured, and were taken to Turkish hospitals because of their critical injuries.

The majority of the sources noted that both the Sultan Murad faction and the ‘Civilian Police’ are both Turkish-backed militias operating in Syria. However, it is unclear which militia was responsible for the civilian casualties.

The incident occured at approximately 12:00 pm local time.

The victims were named as:

Abdul Rahman Hamid Al-Ahmad
11 years old killed
Hassan Ali Al-Obeid
14 years old killed

Summary

  • Strike status
    Contested strike
  • Strike type
    Ground operation
  • Civilian harm reported
    Yes
  • Civilians reported killed
    2
  • (2 children)
  • Civilians reported injured
    5–7
  • Causes of injury / death
    Heavy weapons and explosive munitions, Small arms and light weapons
  • Airwars civilian harm grading
    Contested
    Competing claims of responsibility e.g. multiple belligerents, or casualties also attributed to ground forces.
  • Suspected attacker
    Turkish Military
  • Belligerents reported killed
    1–3
  • Belligerents reported injured
    2

Sources (7) [ collapse]

Geolocation notes

Reports of the incident mention the city of Ras al Ain (رأس العين), for which the generic coordinates are: 36.849005, 40.071581. Due to limited satellite imagery and information available to Airwars, we were unable to verify the location further.

Turkish Military Assessment:

  • Suspected belligerent
    Turkish Military
  • Turkish Military position on incident
    Not yet assessed

Summary

  • Strike status
    Contested strike
  • Strike type
    Ground operation
  • Civilian harm reported
    Yes
  • Civilians reported killed
    2
  • (2 children)
  • Civilians reported injured
    5–7
  • Causes of injury / death
    Heavy weapons and explosive munitions, Small arms and light weapons
  • Airwars civilian harm grading
    Contested
    Competing claims of responsibility e.g. multiple belligerents, or casualties also attributed to ground forces.
  • Suspected attacker
    Turkish Military
  • Belligerents reported killed
    1–3
  • Belligerents reported injured
    2

Sources (7) [ collapse]

Incident Code

TS642

Incident date

October 5, 2023

Location

مدينة نبل, Nubul, Aleppo, Syria

Airwars assessment

On 5 October 2023, a civilian was killed and “dozens” of others were injured by alleged Turkish shelling of the city of Nubul.

Fox Press reported that a civilian was killed and several others were injured when Turkish forces and their factions allegedly shelled the city of Nubul at dawn. According to Nubul City News, the man who was killed was 50 years old – he was returning home when he was killed, and Aleppo News identified the man as “retired Colonel Younis Younis“.

Press News reported that “dozens” of civilians were wounded by the shelling.

Images posted by Nubul News show the significant material damage caused by the shelling.

Nubul City posted that the Younes Younes was buried at the Martyrs’ Cemetery and condolences would occur at Imam Zain Al-Abidin Mosque, Eastern District

The incident occured around dawn.

The victims were named as:

Younis Younis يونس يونس
50 years old male killed

Summary

  • Strike status
    Likely strike
  • Strike type
    Artillery
  • Civilian harm reported
    Yes
  • Civilians reported killed
    1
  • (1 man)
  • Civilians reported injured
    12–24
  • Cause of injury / death
    Heavy weapons and explosive munitions
  • Airwars civilian harm grading
    Fair
    Reported by two or more credible sources, with likely or confirmed near actions by a belligerent.
  • Suspected attacker
    Turkish Military

Sources (9) [ collapse]

Media
from sources (11) [ collapse]

  • This media contains graphic content. Click to unblur.

    Source: Nubul news facebook

  • This media contains graphic content. Click to unblur.

    Source: Nubul news facebook

  • This media contains graphic content. Click to unblur.

    Source: Nubul news facebook

  • This media contains graphic content. Click to unblur.

    Source: Nubul city news facebook

  • This media contains graphic content. Click to unblur.

    Source: Nubul city news facebook

  • This media contains graphic content. Click to unblur.

    Source: Nubul city news facebook

  • This media contains graphic content. Click to unblur.

    Source: Nubul city news facebook

  • This media contains graphic content. Click to unblur.

    Source: Nubul city news facebook

  • This media contains graphic content. Click to unblur.

    Source: Nubul city news facebook

  • This media contains graphic content. Click to unblur.

    Source: Press News facebook

  • This media contains graphic content. Click to unblur.

    Source: Nubul city facebook

Turkish Military Assessment:

  • Suspected belligerent
    Turkish Military
  • Turkish Military position on incident
    Not yet assessed

Summary

  • Strike status
    Likely strike
  • Strike type
    Artillery
  • Civilian harm reported
    Yes
  • Civilians reported killed
    1
  • (1 man)
  • Civilians reported injured
    12–24
  • Cause of injury / death
    Heavy weapons and explosive munitions
  • Airwars civilian harm grading
    Fair
    Reported by two or more credible sources, with likely or confirmed near actions by a belligerent.
  • Suspected attacker
    Turkish Military

Sources (9) [ collapse]

Incident Code

TS052

Incident date

January 15, 2017

Location

الباب, Al Bab city, Aleppo, Syria

Geolocation

36.371972, 37.51631 Note: The accuracy of this location is to City level. Continue to map

Airwars assessment

Eight civilians including women, a child and a member of the civil defense died in an alleged Turkish artillery shelling of Al Bab, according to local sources.

Al Bab 24 reported that “Hassan Ghazi al Haj, a member of the civil defense in Al Bab died from wounds sustained in Turkish raids on the city.”

According to the Syrian Network for Human Rights, “four civilians including a child and a woman died in a Der’ Al Furat forces- supported Turkish forces artillery shelling on Al Bab city in Aleppo governorate eastern suburbs.”

The local time of the incident is unknown.

The victims were named as:

Hassan Ghazi al Haj
Age unknown male named by Halab News askilled by Turkish artillery killed
Yahya Mohammad al Basha
Age unknown male named by Halab News askilled by Turkish artillery killed
Member of the Touman Hussaib family
Age unknown named by Halab News askilled by Turkish artillery killed
Member of the Touman Hussaib family
Age unknown named by Halab News askilled by Turkish artillery killed
Member of the Touman Hussaib family
Age unknown named by Halab News askilled by Turkish artillery killed
Member of the Touman Hussaib family
Age unknown named by Halab News askilled by Turkish artillery killed
Member of the Sawass family
Age unknown female named by Halab News askilled by Turkish artillery killed
The wife of Ahmad Salah Qassem al Khalil
Age unknown female named by Halab News askilled by Turkish artillery killed

Summary

  • Civilian harm reported
    Yes
  • Civilians reported killed
    8
  • (1 child2 women2–4 men)
  • Airwars civilian harm grading
    Fair
    Reported by two or more credible sources, with likely or confirmed near actions by a belligerent.
  • Suspected attacker
    Turkish Military

Sources (6) [ collapse]

Geolocation notes

Reports of the incident mention the city of Al Bab city (الباب), for which the generic coordinates are: 36.371972, 37.51631. Due to limited satellite imagery and information available to Airwars, we were unable to verify the location further.

Turkish Military Assessment:

  • Suspected belligerent
    Turkish Military
  • Turkish Military position on incident
    Not yet assessed

Summary

  • Civilian harm reported
    Yes
  • Civilians reported killed
    8
  • (1 child2 women2–4 men)
  • Airwars civilian harm grading
    Fair
    Reported by two or more credible sources, with likely or confirmed near actions by a belligerent.
  • Suspected attacker
    Turkish Military

Sources (6) [ collapse]

Incident Code

TS090

Incident date

August 21, 2017

Location

تل رفعت, Tal Ref’at, Aleppo, Syria

Geolocation

36.473056, 37.094444 Note: The accuracy of this location is to City level. Continue to map

Airwars assessment

One civilian died and four more were wounded in alleged Turkish shelling of the town of Tal Ref’at, according to local media – though one report also said that the Syrian Free Army also targeted Kurdish units in the town.

Rumaf named Alia Omar Sheikh and Othman Zakaria Mustafa as killed. However, a later report by Rumaf said that Othman Zakaria Mustafa was a member of “the Asayish forces”, the Kurdish security forces. It published images showing the funeral procession.

According to the Syrian Observatory for Human Rights, “Turkish forces shelled areas in Tal Rifat town in the northern countryside of Aleppo, which is controlled by the Syria Democratic Forces. This resulted in the injury of four people”.

SDF press also pointed towards Turkey, reporting that “the Turkish occupation army and its mercenaries stationed in the towns of Mara and Kalgberin shelled the Tel Rifaat area with shells and heavy weapons. The shelling resulted in injuries among civilians, who were taken to a hospital.”

However, Ahmad al Farouh, pro-revolution activist from Mare’e, Aleppo, said that the Syrian Free Army targeted Kurdish units in the town with “artillery and mortars” – but made no mention of civilian harm.

The local time of the incident is unknown.

The victims were named as:

Alia Omar Sheikh
Adult female killed
Othman Zakaria Mustafa
Adult male combatant killed
Depo Mohammed Champion
Age unknown injured
Abdul Basit Ali Sakran
Age unknown injured
Abdo Sukran
Age unknown injured
Mohammed Hassan Dibo
Age unknown injured
Mahmoud Hassan Dibo
Age unknown injured
Ghazi Rahal (refugee in the city of Tel Rifaat)
Age unknown injured
Louay Aboush (refugee)
Age unknown injured

Summary

  • Civilian harm reported
    Yes
  • Civilians reported killed
    1
  • Civilians reported injured
    7
  • Airwars civilian harm grading
    Contested
    Competing claims of responsibility e.g. multiple belligerents, or casualties also attributed to ground forces.
  • Suspected attackers
    Turkish Military, Free Syrian Army

Sources (8) [ collapse]

Media
from sources (9) [ collapse]

  • An injured man recives medical treatment following an alleged Turkish or FSA airstrike. (via SDF)
  • Aftermath of an alleged Turkish or FSA airstrike. (via SDF)
  • Funeral procession of the victim. (via Rumaf)
  • Funeral procession of the victim. (via Rumaf)
  • Funeral procession of the victim. (via Rumaf)
  • Funeral procession of the victim. (via Rumaf)
  • Funeral procession of the victim. (via Rumaf)
  • Funeral procession of the victim. (via Rumaf)
  • Funeral procession of the victim. (via Rumaf)

Geolocation notes

Reports of the incident mention the city of Tal Ref’at ( تل رفعت), for which the generic coordinates are: 36.473056, 37.094444. Due to limited satellite imagery and information available to Airwars, we were unable to verify the location further.

Turkish Military Assessment:

  • Suspected belligerent
    Turkish Military
  • Turkish Military position on incident
    Not yet assessed

Free Syrian Army Assessment:

  • Suspected belligerent
    Free Syrian Army
  • Free Syrian Army position on incident
    Not yet assessed

Summary

  • Civilian harm reported
    Yes
  • Civilians reported killed
    1
  • Civilians reported injured
    7
  • Airwars civilian harm grading
    Contested
    Competing claims of responsibility e.g. multiple belligerents, or casualties also attributed to ground forces.
  • Suspected attackers
    Turkish Military, Free Syrian Army

Sources (8) [ collapse]