Russian Military in Syria

A Russian combat aircraft at Khmeimim airbase in Syria being prepared for action. (Russian Ministry of Defence)

Belligerent
Russian Military
Country
Syria
start date
end date
Civilian Harm Status
Belligerent Assessment
Declassified Documents
Infrastructure

Incident Code

RS4236

Incident date

December 7, 2019

Location

بلدة البارة, Al Barah, Idlib, Syria

Airwars assessment

At least four civilians, including one child and two women, were killed and up to dozens were wounded in alleged Russian airstrikes that coincided with Syrian regime artillery strikes in the city centre of Al Barah on December 7th, 2019, according to local sources.

Step News Agency reported that Russian raids targeted the main street in the city centre, as well as a mosque and school, while the Syrian regime simultaneously targeted the city with artillery. The Syrian Network for Human Rights reported that Al Rahman mosque in the suburbs of Al Barah was hit and partly destroyed by Russian airstrikes and Shaam News added that a bakery was also struck. According to the Syrian Civil Defence, the homes of civilians were targeted as well. MMC reported that a popular market was targeted.

According to Smart News Agency, a child and two women were among those killed, and another woman was wounded. According to Ahira, the fourth fatal victim was a male civilian. @SY_plus gave a civilian death toll of five. The Syrian Committee for Human Rights reported that the names of the killed civilians were: Halima Muhammad Al Qashlan, Baraa Abdul Halim Al Qashlan, Fatim Hatim Al Sayyadi and Khaled Haj Hamidi.

Orient News identified Fatim as being displaced from the city of Halfaya, adding that Halima and Fatim were women and Bara’a was a child.

Macro Media Center also reported that four civilian were killed, adding that dozens were wounded as in the strikes on the market. Various other sources also identified “dozens” injured without specifying how many. A video of an injured baby was tweeted by @turkistantuzbah but it is unclear if the child was injured in Al-Bara or another incident the same day.

Our Syria News mentioned that vacuum missiles were used in the attack and MF-SY added that four airstrikes were carried out.

The incident occured in the morning.

The victims were named as:

Family members (2)

The victims were named as:

Summary

  • Strike status
    Contested strike
  • Strike type
    Airstrike and/or Artillery
  • Civilian infrastructure
    School
  • Civilian harm reported
    Yes
  • Civilians reported killed
    4 – 5
  • (1 child2 women1 man)
  • Civilians reported injured
    2–24
  • Cause of injury / death
    Heavy weapons and explosive munitions
  • Airwars civilian harm grading
    Contested
    Competing claims of responsibility e.g. multiple belligerents, or casualties also attributed to ground forces.
  • Suspected attackers
    Russian Military, Syrian Regime

Sources (38) [ collapse]

Media
from sources (17) [ collapse]

  • Damage inside Al Rahman mosque in Al Bara after alleged Russian airstrikes on December 7th, 2019 (via SN4HR).
  • Syrian Civil Defence volunteers at the scene of the incident after alleged Russian airstrikes in center of Al Barah on December 7th, 2019 (via SCD on Facebook).
  • Syrian Civil Defence volunteers at the scene of the incident after alleged Russian airstrikes on the city center of Al Barah on December 7th, 2019 (via SCD on Facebook).
  • Syrian Civil Defence volunteers at the scene of the incident after alleged Russian airstrikes on the city center of Al Barah on December 7th, 2019 (via SCD on Facebook).
  • This media contains graphic content. Click to unblur.

    Syrian Civil Defence volunteer carrying a child victim after alleged Russian airstrikes on the city center of Al Barah on December 7th, 2019 (via SCD on Facebook).
  • Destruction caused by strikes on a popular market in the town of Al-Bara on December 7, 2019. (Image posted by @MMCSYR)
  • Destruction caused by strikes on a popular market in the town of Al-Bara on December 7, 2019. (Image posted by @MMCSYR)
  • Destruction caused by strikes on a popular market in the town of Al-Bara on December 7, 2019. (Image posted by @MMCSYR)
  • Destruction caused by strikes on a popular market in the town of Al-Bara on December 7, 2019. (Image posted by @MMCSYR)
  • This media contains graphic content. Click to unblur.

  • With great sadness and sorrow, we received the news of his death The good man, Khaled Haj Hamidi Abu Ahmed, as a result of the raids that targeted our beloved and righteous town

Russian Military Assessment:

  • Suspected belligerent
    Russian Military
  • Russian Military position on incident
    Not yet assessed

Syrian Regime Assessment:

  • Suspected belligerent
    Syrian Regime
  • Syrian Regime position on incident
    Not yet assessed

Summary

  • Strike status
    Contested strike
  • Strike type
    Airstrike and/or Artillery
  • Civilian infrastructure
    School
  • Civilian harm reported
    Yes
  • Civilians reported killed
    4 – 5
  • (1 child2 women1 man)
  • Civilians reported injured
    2–24
  • Cause of injury / death
    Heavy weapons and explosive munitions
  • Airwars civilian harm grading
    Contested
    Competing claims of responsibility e.g. multiple belligerents, or casualties also attributed to ground forces.
  • Suspected attackers
    Russian Military, Syrian Regime

Sources (38) [ collapse]

Incident Code

RS4237

Incident date

December 7, 2019

Location

إبديتا, Abdita, Idlib, Syria

Airwars assessment

As many as seven civilians, including a woman, five children and a man, were killed in alleged Russian or Syrian regime airstrikes on the village of Abdita, Idlib governate on December 7th 2019, according to local media.

Three sources said a child, Abdullah Al-Zaidan, died from wounds he sustained in the strike. The Syrian Human Rights Committee and ِAbo Ibrahim Tata announced the death of two other children, Noor Ali Zidan, 13, and Iman Ali Zidan, 11. A mother, Walaa Al-Jazzar, and her two daughters, Sundus, 2, and Zainab, 3, were also killed according to the sources. Zaitun Agency reported that a man had been killed in the strike, no further details were provided.

Shahba Press, @media_idlib and the Syrian White Helmets reported that four civilians, three children and a woman, were injured in the strike

The majority of the sources said helicopters of the Syrian regime carried out the strike using barrel bombs. Two sources, @mahmoodtalha22 and local journalist Hassan al-Muhammad said Russian aircraft had carried out the strikes.

The incident took place in the afternoon.

The incident occured in the afternoon.

The victims were named as:

Family members (3)

Walaa Muteeh Al-Jazzar ولاء مطيع الجزار
Adult female killed
Sundus سندس
2 years old female Daughter of Walaa Muteeh Al-Jazzar killed
Zainab زينب
3 years old female Daughter of Walaa Muteeh Al-Jazzar killed

The victims were named as:

Noor Ali Zidan نور علي زيدان
13 years old female https://www.shrc.org/?p=35439 killed
Iman Ali Zidan ايمان علي زيدان
11 years old female https://www.shrc.org/?p=35439 killed
Abdullah Al-Zaidan عبد الله الزيدان
Child male https://www.shrc.org/?p=35466 killed

Summary

  • Strike status
    Contested strike
  • Strike type
    Airstrike
  • Civilian harm reported
    Yes
  • Civilians reported killed
    5 – 7
  • (3–4 children1 woman1 man)
  • Civilians reported injured
    4
  • Cause of injury / death
    Heavy weapons and explosive munitions
  • Airwars civilian harm grading
    Contested
    Competing claims of responsibility e.g. multiple belligerents, or casualties also attributed to ground forces.
  • Suspected attackers
    Russian Military, Syrian Regime

Sources (30) [ collapse]

Media
from sources (10) [ collapse]

  • An photograph of Abdullah Ali Al-Zaidan, who was killed in an alleged Syrian regime or Russian airstrike on the village of Abdita, Idlib governate on December 7 th 2019. (Uploaded by Mohammed Al Shami)
  • An photograph of Abdullah Ali Al-Zaidan, who was killed in an alleged Syrian regime or Russian airstrike on the village of Abdita, Idlib governate on December 7 th 2019. (Uploaded by Mohammed Al Shami)
  • This media contains graphic content. Click to unblur.

    Dead bodies following an alleged regime barrel bombing in Abdita, Dec 7th 2019 (via SN4HR)
  • This media contains graphic content. Click to unblur.

    A man cradles his child who was killed in an alleged Syrian regime or Russian airstrike on the village of Abdita, Idlib governate on December 7th, 2019. (Uploaded by @khalidaboalmjed)
  • In image purporting to show the moments following an alleged Syrian regime or Russian airstrike on the village of Abdita, Idlib governate on December 7 th 2019. (Uploaded by @QasiounAr)
  • First responders are seen at the site of an alleged Syrian regime or Russian airstrike in the village of Abdita, Idlib governate on December 7 th 2019. (Uploaded by The Syrian White Helmets)
  • First responders are seen at the site of an alleged Syrian regime or Russian airstrike in the village of Abdita, Idlib governate on December 7 th 2019. (Uploaded by The Syrian White Helmets)
  • First responders are seen at the site of an alleged Syrian regime or Russian airstrike in the village of Abdita, Idlib governate on December 7 th 2019. (Uploaded by The Syrian White Helmets)
  • Damage to buildings following an alleged Syrian regime or Russian airstrike in the town of Abdita, Idlib governate on December 7 th 2019. (Uploaded by @allaith12345)

Russian Military Assessment:

  • Suspected belligerent
    Russian Military
  • Russian Military position on incident
    Not yet assessed

Syrian Regime Assessment:

  • Suspected belligerent
    Syrian Regime
  • Syrian Regime position on incident
    Not yet assessed

Summary

  • Strike status
    Contested strike
  • Strike type
    Airstrike
  • Civilian harm reported
    Yes
  • Civilians reported killed
    5 – 7
  • (3–4 children1 woman1 man)
  • Civilians reported injured
    4
  • Cause of injury / death
    Heavy weapons and explosive munitions
  • Airwars civilian harm grading
    Contested
    Competing claims of responsibility e.g. multiple belligerents, or casualties also attributed to ground forces.
  • Suspected attackers
    Russian Military, Syrian Regime

Sources (30) [ collapse]

Incident Code

RS4249

Incident date

December 16, 2019

Location

جزرايا, Jazraya, Aleppo governorate, Syria

Airwars assessment

Up to two people were injured in up to four alleged Russian airstrikes on the town of Jazraya, Aleppo Governorate, on December 16th, 2019, according to local sources.

SMART News reported that one person was injured by Russian aircraft. The Syrian White Helmets reported injuries following the strike. Shaam News said there had been no injuries.

Four of the sources said that a total of four strikes had taken place in the town.

@AramMedia_N and @NEDAAPOST reported that Russian aircraft had used vacuum munitions.

The Syrian White Helmets reported that the strikes caused damage to civilian property.

All of the sources but one, which did not name a belligerent, attributed the strikes to the Russian airforce.

The local time of the incident is unknown.

Summary

  • Strike status
    Likely strike
  • Strike type
    Airstrike
  • Civilian harm reported
    Yes
  • Civilians reported killed
    Unknown
  • Civilians reported injured
    0–2
  • Cause of injury / death
    Heavy weapons and explosive munitions
  • Airwars civilian harm grading
    Fair
    Reported by two or more credible sources, with likely or confirmed near actions by a belligerent.
  • Suspected attacker
    Russian Military

Sources (13) [ collapse]

Media
from sources (14) [ collapse]

  • Aftermath of alleged Russian airstrikes on the town of Jazraya, Aleppo governorate, on December 16th, 2019 (via Syrian Civil Defence on Facebook).
  • Aftermath of alleged Russian airstrikes on the town of Jazraya, Aleppo governorate, on December 16th, 2019 (via Syrian Civil Defence on Facebook).
  • Aftermath of alleged Russian airstrikes on the town of Jazraya, Aleppo governorate, on December 16th, 2019 (via Syrian Civil Defence on Facebook).
  • Aftermath of alleged Russian airstrikes on the town of Jazraya, Aleppo governorate, on December 16th, 2019 (via Syrian Civil Defence on Facebook).
  • Aftermath of alleged Russian airstrikes on the town of Jazraya, Aleppo governorate, on December 16th, 2019 (via Syrian Civil Defence on Facebook).
  • Aftermath of alleged Russian airstrikes on the town of Jazraya, Aleppo governorate, on December 16th, 2019 (via Syrian Civil Defence on Facebook).
  • Aftermath of alleged Russian airstrikes on the town of Jazraya, Aleppo governorate, on December 16th, 2019 (via Syrian Civil Defence on Facebook).
  • Aftermath of alleged Russian airstrikes on the town of Jazraya, Aleppo governorate, on December 16th, 2019 (via Liveuamap).
  • Aftermath of alleged Russian airstrikes on the town of Jazraya, Aleppo governorate, on December 16th, 2019 (via Liveuamap).
  • Destruction following an alleged Russian airstrike on the town of Jazraya, Aleppo Governorate, on December 16th, 2019. (Uploaded by @ala_hacioglu)
  • Destruction following an alleged Russian airstrike on the town of Jazraya, Aleppo Governorate, on December 16th, 2019. (Uploaded by @ala_hacioglu)
  • Destruction following an alleged Russian airstrike on the town of Jazraya, Aleppo Governorate, on December 16th, 2019. (Uploaded by @ala_hacioglu)
  • Destruction following an alleged Russian airstrike on the town of Jazraya, Aleppo Governorate, on December 16th, 2019. (Uploaded by @ala_hacioglu)

Russian Military Assessment:

  • Suspected belligerent
    Russian Military
  • Russian Military position on incident
    Not yet assessed

Summary

  • Strike status
    Likely strike
  • Strike type
    Airstrike
  • Civilian harm reported
    Yes
  • Civilians reported killed
    Unknown
  • Civilians reported injured
    0–2
  • Cause of injury / death
    Heavy weapons and explosive munitions
  • Airwars civilian harm grading
    Fair
    Reported by two or more credible sources, with likely or confirmed near actions by a belligerent.
  • Suspected attacker
    Russian Military

Sources (13) [ collapse]

Incident Code

RS4250

Incident date

December 16, 2019

Location

معرة النعمان, Ma’ret Al Nu’man, Idlib, Syria

Airwars assessment

An unknown number of civilians were reportedly wounded by alleged Russian and/or Syrian regime airstrikes in Ma’rat Al Numan city, Idlib governorate, on December 16th, 2019, according to local sources.

Shaam News Agency reported that “dozens of people were wounded”  following Russian and Syrian regime airstrikes on towns and cities across the Idlib countryside including Ma’rat Al Numan.

@HalabTodayTV, @Mohamed2Aldaher and @Omyusif_syria reported that civilians had been injured following strikes on the city.

@HalabTodayTV and Syria LiveUA said aircraft had used “heavy machine guns” to target the city.

The sources said the strikes had been the result of both Syrian regime helicopters and Russian aircraft.

The local time of the incident is unknown.

Summary

  • Strike status
    Contested strike
  • Strike type
    Airstrike
  • Civilian harm reported
    Yes
  • Civilians reported killed
    Unknown
  • Civilians reported injured
    2
  • Cause of injury / death
    Heavy weapons and explosive munitions
  • Airwars civilian harm grading
    Contested
    Competing claims of responsibility e.g. multiple belligerents, or casualties also attributed to ground forces.
  • Suspected attackers
    Russian Military, Syrian Regime

Sources (13) [ collapse]

Russian Military Assessment:

  • Suspected belligerent
    Russian Military
  • Russian Military position on incident
    Not yet assessed

Syrian Regime Assessment:

  • Suspected belligerent
    Syrian Regime
  • Syrian Regime position on incident
    Not yet assessed

Summary

  • Strike status
    Contested strike
  • Strike type
    Airstrike
  • Civilian harm reported
    Yes
  • Civilians reported killed
    Unknown
  • Civilians reported injured
    2
  • Cause of injury / death
    Heavy weapons and explosive munitions
  • Airwars civilian harm grading
    Contested
    Competing claims of responsibility e.g. multiple belligerents, or casualties also attributed to ground forces.
  • Suspected attackers
    Russian Military, Syrian Regime

Sources (13) [ collapse]

Incident Code

RS4251

Incident date

December 16, 2019

Location

كفروما, Kafarouma, Idlib, Syria

Airwars assessment

One person was killed and several civilians wounded in alleged Russian airstrikes on the town of Kafarouma, Idlib Governorate on December 16th, 2019, according to local sources.

Iskenderun Arabic reported Russian aircraft struck the town four times between 20:38 and 20:55 on December 16th, 2019. According to the source, strikes on Kafarouma and the town of Jarjanaz resulted in the injury of Ahmed Mustafa Al-Ziyadi, Hind Al-Sateef and Mahmoud Abdullah Al-Subhi. The source did not clearly specify in which location the men were injured. Following a request for information from the Violations Documentation Center, the source provided the following names of people injured in the strikes: Mustafa Ziadi, Hind Al-Sateef and Mustafa Al Ali. According to the source the injuries were caused by a Russian strike that occurred at 20:40.

Baladi News reported: “Russian Air Force airplane took off from Khmeimim Airport in Lattakia countryside and bombed the town of Kafarouma in southern Idlib countryside with a number of rockets, which resulted in the injury of several civilians with varying wounds”.

The Syrian Civil Defence reported one person killed and several injuries from a Russian “rocket attack” that targeted the outskirts of the Kafarouma.

@jisrtv, @tarekahmd22  and @MMCSYR  reported that Russian warplanes had used vacuum bombs.

In a summary of events that took place on December 16th, Shaam News reported that Russian and Syrian regime helicopters carried dozens of strikes against towns in the Idlib countryside including Kafarouma.

The majority of the sources attributed the strike to the Russian airforce.

The incident occured at 20:40:00 local time.

The victims were named as:

Mustafa Al Ali مصطفى العلي
Age unknown male injured

Summary

  • Strike status
    Likely strike
  • Strike type
    Airstrike
  • Civilian harm reported
    Yes
  • Civilians reported killed
    1
  • Civilians reported injured
    2–4
  • Cause of injury / death
    Heavy weapons and explosive munitions
  • Airwars civilian harm grading
    Fair
    Reported by two or more credible sources, with likely or confirmed near actions by a belligerent.
  • Suspected attacker
    Russian Military

Sources (13) [ collapse]

Russian Military Assessment:

  • Suspected belligerent
    Russian Military
  • Russian Military position on incident
    Not yet assessed

Summary

  • Strike status
    Likely strike
  • Strike type
    Airstrike
  • Civilian harm reported
    Yes
  • Civilians reported killed
    1
  • Civilians reported injured
    2–4
  • Cause of injury / death
    Heavy weapons and explosive munitions
  • Airwars civilian harm grading
    Fair
    Reported by two or more credible sources, with likely or confirmed near actions by a belligerent.
  • Suspected attacker
    Russian Military

Sources (13) [ collapse]

Incident Code

RS4252

Incident date

December 16, 2019

Location

جرجناز, Jarjanaz, Idlib, Syria

Airwars assessment

At least one civilian was reportedly injured in alleged Russian or Syrian regime airstrikes on the town of Jarjanaz, Idlib Governorate on December 16th, 2019, according to local reports.

The Syrian Civil Defence reported on Facebook that “civilians were wounded by rockets targeting the Russian occupation air force, in the town of Jarjanaz, south of Idlib”.

Baladi News reported one wounded civilian and wrote that the bombardment targeted civilians’ homes and properties.

Al Araby reported: “On Sunday night, Russian warplanes bombed the town of Abu Makka, east of Maarat al-Numan in the southern countryside of Idlib, in addition to the vicinity of the village of Al-Sarman, and the vicinity of the town of Jarjanaz in the eastern countryside of Maarat al-Numan in Idlib countryside”

The remaining sources said the strikes were either the result of barrel bombs, dropped by the Syrian regime, or attributed the strike to both Russia and the Syrian regime.

The local time of the incident is unknown.

Summary

  • Strike status
    Contested strike
  • Strike type
    Airstrike
  • Civilian harm reported
    Yes
  • Civilians reported killed
    Unknown
  • Civilians reported injured
    1–2
  • Cause of injury / death
    Heavy weapons and explosive munitions
  • Airwars civilian harm grading
    Contested
    Competing claims of responsibility e.g. multiple belligerents, or casualties also attributed to ground forces.
  • Suspected attackers
    Russian Military, Syrian Regime

Sources (11) [ collapse]

Russian Military Assessment:

  • Suspected belligerent
    Russian Military
  • Russian Military position on incident
    Not yet assessed

Syrian Regime Assessment:

  • Suspected belligerent
    Syrian Regime
  • Syrian Regime position on incident
    Not yet assessed

Summary

  • Strike status
    Contested strike
  • Strike type
    Airstrike
  • Civilian harm reported
    Yes
  • Civilians reported killed
    Unknown
  • Civilians reported injured
    1–2
  • Cause of injury / death
    Heavy weapons and explosive munitions
  • Airwars civilian harm grading
    Contested
    Competing claims of responsibility e.g. multiple belligerents, or casualties also attributed to ground forces.
  • Suspected attackers
    Russian Military, Syrian Regime

Sources (11) [ collapse]

Incident Code

RS4253

Incident date

December 16, 2019

Location

بلدات متعددة, several towns, Idlib, Syria

Airwars assessment

Dozens of civilians were reportedly wounded as the result of alleged Russian and/or Syrian regime airstrikes on several locations in Idlib governorate on December 16th, 2019.

Shaam News Agency reported that the airstrikes targeted the city of Ma’arat Al Numan and the villages and towns of Deir Al Sharqi, Al Haraki, Al Harman, Harran, Abumaki, Mar’shourin, Talmans, Al Ra’fah, Al Halba, Kafarouma, Tal Al Shih, Ma’saran, Al Ghadfa, Al Barasa, Abu Dafna, Ma’saruna, Jarjnaz, Ma’rash, Al Sayyid, Hataya, Dana, and Ain Qurei farm.

Currently, further information is unavailable to Airwars.

The local time of the incident is unknown.

Summary

  • Strike status
    Single source claim
  • Strike type
    Airstrike
  • Civilian harm reported
    Yes
  • Civilians reported killed
    Unknown
  • Civilians reported injured
    2
  • Airwars civilian harm grading
    Weak
    Single source claim, though sometimes featuring significant information.
  • Suspected attackers
    Russian Military, Syrian Regime

Sources (1) [ collapse]

Russian Military Assessment:

  • Suspected belligerent
    Russian Military
  • Russian Military position on incident
    Not yet assessed

Syrian Regime Assessment:

  • Suspected belligerent
    Syrian Regime
  • Syrian Regime position on incident
    Not yet assessed

Summary

  • Strike status
    Single source claim
  • Strike type
    Airstrike
  • Civilian harm reported
    Yes
  • Civilians reported killed
    Unknown
  • Civilians reported injured
    2
  • Airwars civilian harm grading
    Weak
    Single source claim, though sometimes featuring significant information.
  • Suspected attackers
    Russian Military, Syrian Regime

Sources (1) [ collapse]

Incident Code

RS4254

Incident date

December 16, 2019

Location

بداما, Badama, Idlib, Syria

Airwars assessment

One civilian was reportedly injured following alleged Russian or Syrian regime strikes on the town of Badama, Idlib Governorate on December 16th 2019, according to local reports.

@HalabTodayTV and @NagiNajjar reported that Syrian regime positions shelled the town and the area surrounding it. @HalabTodayTV said a civilian was injured as a result.

An unnamed source told Xeber24 that Syrian regime helicopters targeted the town, among others, with missiles.

@Sentry_Syria reported that a reconnaissance aircraft was spotted circling the town at 11:56 local time.

In a round-up of events that took place on December 16th, Shaam News reported that Russian and Syrian regime aircraft targeted dozens of towns across Idlib including Badama. The attack on the town resulted in one injury according to the source.

The local time of the incident is unknown.

Summary

  • Strike status
    Contested strike
  • Strike type
    Airstrike
  • Civilian harm reported
    Yes
  • Civilians reported killed
    Unknown
  • Civilians reported injured
    1
  • Cause of injury / death
    Heavy weapons and explosive munitions
  • Airwars civilian harm grading
    Contested
    Competing claims of responsibility e.g. multiple belligerents, or casualties also attributed to ground forces.
  • Suspected attackers
    Russian Military, Syrian Regime
  • Suspected target
    Assad regime

Sources (5) [ collapse]

Russian Military Assessment:

  • Suspected belligerent
    Russian Military
  • Russian Military position on incident
    Not yet assessed

Syrian Regime Assessment:

  • Suspected belligerent
    Syrian Regime
  • Syrian Regime position on incident
    Not yet assessed

Summary

  • Strike status
    Contested strike
  • Strike type
    Airstrike
  • Civilian harm reported
    Yes
  • Civilians reported killed
    Unknown
  • Civilians reported injured
    1
  • Cause of injury / death
    Heavy weapons and explosive munitions
  • Airwars civilian harm grading
    Contested
    Competing claims of responsibility e.g. multiple belligerents, or casualties also attributed to ground forces.
  • Suspected attackers
    Russian Military, Syrian Regime
  • Suspected target
    Assad regime

Sources (5) [ collapse]