Russian Military in Syria

A Russian combat aircraft at Khmeimim airbase in Syria being prepared for action. (Russian Ministry of Defence)

Belligerent
Russian Military
Country
Syria
start date
end date
Civilian Harm Status
Belligerent Assessment
Declassified Documents
Infrastructure

Incident Code

RS125

Incident date

November 7, 2015

Location

دوما, Douma, Damascus, Syria

Geolocation

33.5714804, 36.4033699 Note: The accuracy of this location is to City level. Continue to map

Airwars assessment

News media and casualty recorders reported that between 25 and 26 civilians were killed including eight children and seven women – and more than a dozen injured – in airstrikes targeting a market where people were queuing to buy heating fuel.

It remains unclear whether the Assad regime or Russian forces were responsible for the attack.

According to The White Helmets – which came to the aid of casualties – there were three raids, with more than one missile strike. Both The White Helmets and Shaam News Network reported that at least ten non-combatants were killed as a result of Russian airstrikes and predicted that the death toll would rise. Severe damage was caused by fires in several shops.

The Syrian Network for Human Rights said the death toll rose to 26 and initially blamed the regime. However, following an investigation, it declared that Russia was responsible. Radio Al Kul said the city had come under attack from both Russian airstrikes and “regime bombing with rockets and heavy artillery.” But the opposition station insisted the attack on the market was the work of Russian aircraft.

The Violations Documentation Centre published 25 victims by names.

 

The local time of the incident is unknown.

The victims were named as:

Family members (2)

Rateb Basheer al-Nisreen
Adult male killed
Mohammad Natheer al-Nisreen
Adult male killed

Family members (2)

Taghreed Abdul Naser Taha
Child female killed
Mohammad Abdul Naser Taha
Child male killed

Family members (3)

Khawla Yousef Ameen
Adult female killed
Ghusoun Hasan Ameen
Adult female
Hadiye Yousef Ameen
Adult female killed

Family members (2)

Husam Yousef al-Nisreen
Child male killed
Redwan Basheer al-Nisreen
Adult male killed

Family members (2)

Hana al-Sayed
Adult female killed
Rafaela Nadam
Adult female killed

The victims were named as:

Mohammad Ibraheem Arbour
Child male killed
Muhannad Subhi Khebiye
Child male killed
Mahmoud Ihsan al-Jaje
Adult male killed
Bilal Tayseer Subhiye
Child male killed
Ghaydaa Haytham Seesan
Adult female killed
Ahmad Merie Nafeest
Adult male killed
Waleed Jamal al-Sabbagh
Adult male killed
Hani Omar Hanan
Adult male killed
Aamer Omar Urabi
Adult male killed
Yaser Abdul Aziz al-Sheikh Bakri
Adult male killed
Jalapa Bakkar
Adult female killed
Fadi Nadam
Child male killed
Mohammad al-Sleek
Child male killed
Khaleel Badran
Adult male killed

Summary

  • Civilian harm reported
    Yes
  • Civilians reported killed
    25 – 26
  • (8 children7 women10 men)
  • Civilians reported injured
    12–24
  • Airwars civilian harm grading
    Contested
    Competing claims of responsibility e.g. multiple belligerents, or casualties also attributed to ground forces.
  • Suspected attackers
    Unknown, Syrian Regime

Sources (32) [ collapse]

Media
from sources (39) [ collapse]

  • A military air raid targeting the residential neighborhoods of Douma in eastern Al Ghouta on 7-11-2015
  • Footage of the aftermath of the strike on Douma, Nov 7th.
  • This media contains graphic content. Click to unblur.

    Footage of burnt bodies following the str8ike on Douma, Nov 7th
  • More footage of the alleged Russian strike on Douma, Nov 7th
  • This media contains graphic content. Click to unblur.

    More footage of the alleged Russian strike on Douma, Nov 7th
  • More footage of the alleged Russian strike on Douma, Nov 7th
  • Scenes from the aftermath of the Douma strike Nov 7th
  • Two child victims following an alleged Russian airstrike on Douma, Nov 7th
  • Debris: The air strikes hit the centre of the town of Douma in the suburbs of Damascus in Syria. Much of the area was destroyed
  • Terrifying: Syrians run for cover in a dusty street as they hear fighter jets, believed to be Russian, flying over the town of Douma today
  • Destroyed: A man gestures while people search for survivors in the rubble. At least 23 people, including women and children, were killed
  • Death: The Observatory said at least six children and seven women were among the dead and reported that the death toll could rise further
  • Damage: A Syrian man carries a woman wearing a white headscarf who was injured when the air strikes hit the town of Douma earlier today
  • Help: A Syrian boy receives first aid in the field hospital after air strikes hit a rebel-held town in the suburbs of Damascus in Syria, today
  • Burning: A dead body lies in the street as people inspect a site hit by air strikes believed to have been carried out by Russia earlier today
  • Despair: A Syrian man leans up against a pole in a field hospital following an attack believed to have been carried out by Russia
  • Pain: An injured man sits on a bed in a field hospital after air strikes, believed to have been Russian, hit the area killing at least 23 people
  • Slaughtered: The air strikes in the town of Douma, Syria today killed at least 23 people. The body of a child is pictured on the ground
  • Wounded: A man with a chunk of flesh gouged out of his left leg moaned and held his head as doctors worked on him after the air strikes
  • Fleeing: A man holds the hand of a little girl as they run through the streets following the deadly air strikes which killed at least 23 people
  • Air strikes: An observatory said at least six children and seven women were among the dead and reported that the death toll could rise
  • Attack: Syrian civil defence members carry an injured man through the streets of Douma following air strikes which killed at least 23 people
  • Killed: The body of a woman is carried on a stretcher following air strikes which a human rights monitor believes Russia is responsible for
  • Rubble: Syrian emergency personnel carry a body on a stretcher through the damaged streets of Douma following air strikes earlier today
  • Victim: Three men aid another Syrian who was injured in the air strikes in the centre of Douma today. The man appears to be unconscious
  • First aid: A man who was injured in today's air strikes in Douma, Syria, moans and holds his head as doctors work on his injured leg
  • Aid: A man who is covered in blood is carried to safety after air strikes hit the town of Douma in Syria today, killing at least 23 people
  • Injured: A man carries a little girl injured in the air strikes in the town of Douma, which were believed to have been carried out by Russia
  • Devastation: A Syrian ban runs through the streets of Douma carrying an injured child after air strikes hit the centre of the town today
  • Photos by Firas Abdullah | shows the aftermath of the two airstrikes hit Douma city.
  • Photos by Firas Abdullah | shows the aftermath of the two airstrikes hit Douma city.
  • Photos by Firas Abdullah | shows the aftermath of the two airstrikes hit Douma city.
  • Photos by Firas Abdullah | shows the aftermath of the two airstrikes hit Douma city.
  • Images that depict the shelling of the market
  • Images that depict the shelling of the market
  • Images that depict the shelling of the market

Unknown Assessment:

  • Suspected belligerent
    Unknown
  • Unknown position on incident
    Not yet assessed

Original strike reports

Unknown

Russia confirms in its report covering November 6th-9th 2015 carrying out strikes in Damascus governorate: “Near Jebel-Mgar mountain (Damascus province), an ammunition depot with improvised unguided rockets of the ISIS illegal armed group was destroyed. This object regularly provided militants with ammunition used for constant bombardment of residential areas of Damascus.”

Syrian Regime Assessment:

  • Suspected belligerent
    Syrian Regime
  • Syrian Regime position on incident
    Not yet assessed

Summary

  • Civilian harm reported
    Yes
  • Civilians reported killed
    25 – 26
  • (8 children7 women10 men)
  • Civilians reported injured
    12–24
  • Airwars civilian harm grading
    Contested
    Competing claims of responsibility e.g. multiple belligerents, or casualties also attributed to ground forces.
  • Suspected attackers
    Unknown, Syrian Regime

Sources (32) [ collapse]

Incident Code

RS124

Incident date

November 6, 2015

Location

القريتين, Al Qaryatayn, Homs, Syria

Geolocation

34.229890, 37.238245 Note: The accuracy of this location is to Town level. Continue to map

Airwars assessment

There was no airstrike conducted on Nov 6th; however, VDC claimed that Mostafa Assem al Arki was killed during alleged Russian air forces shelling in the village Qaryatain. Mostafa Assem al Arki’s death perhaps come after his injured due to the airstrike carried out on Nov 2nd and he died four days later.

The local time of the incident is unknown.

The victims were named as:

Mostafa Assem al Arki
Adult male killed

Summary

  • Civilian harm reported
    Yes
  • Civilians reported killed
    1
  • (1 man)
  • Airwars civilian harm grading
    Weak
    Single source claim, though sometimes featuring significant information.

Geolocation notes

Reports of the incident mention the town Al Qaryatayn (القريتين), for which the generic coordinates are: 34.229890, 37.238245. Due to limited satellite imagery and information available to Airwars, we were unable to verify the location further.

Summary

  • Civilian harm reported
    Yes
  • Civilians reported killed
    1
  • (1 man)
  • Airwars civilian harm grading
    Weak
    Single source claim, though sometimes featuring significant information.

Incident Code

RS121

Incident date

November 5, 2015

Location

البوليل, Al Buliyal, Deir ez-Zor, Syria

Geolocation

35.20253, 40.37126 Note: The accuracy of this location is to Village level. Continue to map

Airwars assessment

The Violations Documentation Center reported that one named civilian male was killed, allegedly due to “Russian airforce shelling“. VDC named the victim as Soeoud al-Thamer.

No additional information is presently known.

 

The local time of the incident is unknown.

The victims were named as:

Soeoud al-Thamer
Adult male killed

Summary

  • Civilian harm reported
    Yes
  • Civilians reported killed
    1
  • (1 man)
  • Airwars civilian harm grading
    Weak
    Single source claim, though sometimes featuring significant information.
  • Suspected attacker
    Unknown

Sources (2) [ collapse]

Geolocation notes

Reports of the incident mention the village of Al Buliyal (البوليل ), for which the generic coordinates are: 35.20253, 40.37126. Due to limited satellite imagery and information available to Airwars, we were unable to verify the location further.

Unknown Assessment:

  • Suspected belligerent
    Unknown
  • Unknown position on incident
    Not yet assessed

Original strike reports

Unknown

Russia has confirmed carrying out strikes in Dayr ez Zawr governorate between November 3rd-5th 2015.

Summary

  • Civilian harm reported
    Yes
  • Civilians reported killed
    1
  • (1 man)
  • Airwars civilian harm grading
    Weak
    Single source claim, though sometimes featuring significant information.
  • Suspected attacker
    Unknown

Sources (2) [ collapse]

Incident Code

RS122

Incident date

November 5, 2015

Location

الكركات, Al Karkat, Hama, Syria

Geolocation

35.477006, 36.384919 Note: The accuracy of this location is to Village level. Continue to map

Airwars assessment

The Syrian Network for Human Rights reported that four children from the same family died after alleged strikes by the regime.

However Al Khul reported that six civilians died “after Russian planes last night targeted the village of Al Karkat near the town of Kala’at al Madik in the western countryside.” And the Shaam News Network reported local activists as saying that a Russian plane had targeted the village with two vacuum missiles, which led to the deaths of non-combatants and widespread destruction of property. The activists also predicted there was likely to be an increase in the number of deaths due to the severity of some injuries, but did not state how many civilians were injured. The Syrian Observatory also blamed Russia for the attack.

Four individually unnamed children of Waleed Khaled al-Ahmad were later reported by the VDC as having been killed.

 

The local time of the incident is unknown.

The victims were named as:

Family members (4)

Waleed Khaled al-Ahmad family
Child male killed
Waleed Khaled al-Ahmad family
Child male killed
Waleed Khaled al-Ahmad family
Child male killed
Waleed Khaled al-Ahmad family
Child male killed

The victims were named as:

Name unknown
Age unknown

Summary

  • Civilian harm reported
    Yes
  • Civilians reported killed
    4 – 6
  • (4 children)
  • Airwars civilian harm grading
    Contested
    Competing claims of responsibility e.g. multiple belligerents, or casualties also attributed to ground forces.
  • Suspected attackers
    Unknown, Syrian Regime

Sources (5) [ collapse]

Geolocation notes

Reports of the incident mention the village of Al Karkat (الكركات), for which the generic coordinates are: 35.477006, 36.384919. Due to limited satellite imagery and information available to Airwars, we were unable to verify the location further.

Unknown Assessment:

  • Suspected belligerent
    Unknown
  • Unknown position on incident
    Not yet assessed

Original strike reports

Unknown

Russia has confirmed carrying out strikes in Hama governorate between November 3rd-5th 2015.

Syrian Regime Assessment:

  • Suspected belligerent
    Syrian Regime
  • Syrian Regime position on incident
    Not yet assessed

Original strike reports

Syrian Regime

 The Syrian Network for Human Rights reported that four children from the same family died after alleged strikes by the regime.

Summary

  • Civilian harm reported
    Yes
  • Civilians reported killed
    4 – 6
  • (4 children)
  • Airwars civilian harm grading
    Contested
    Competing claims of responsibility e.g. multiple belligerents, or casualties also attributed to ground forces.
  • Suspected attackers
    Unknown, Syrian Regime

Sources (5) [ collapse]

Incident Code

RS123

Incident date

November 5, 2015

Location

خان شيخون, Khan Shaykhun, Idlib, Syria

Geolocation

35.44208, 36.65095 Note: The accuracy of this location is to Town level. Continue to map

Airwars assessment

One nine-year-old girl was killed in an airstrike on Khan Sheikhoun – though reports were conflicted as to whether the attack was the work of Russia or the Assad regime.

The Syrian Network for Human Rights reported that regime warplanes were responsible, but the VDC – who named the girl as Shatha Dawood – said she was killed by Russian strikes. Most other sources also blamed Russia.

The Assad regime had reportedly carried out strikes on the town the night before. A video also appears to show cluster munitions being dropped on Khan Sheikhoun on November 5th.

 

The local time of the incident is unknown.

The victims were named as:

Shatha Dawood
Child female killed

Summary

  • Civilian harm reported
    Yes
  • Civilians reported killed
    1
  • (1 child)
  • Airwars civilian harm grading
    Contested
    Competing claims of responsibility e.g. multiple belligerents, or casualties also attributed to ground forces.
  • Suspected attackers
    Russian Military, Syrian Regime

Sources (6) [ collapse]

Media
from sources (2) [ collapse]

  • The moment an airstrike hit Khan Sheikhoun, Nov 5th (via Syriamubasher SLN)
  • Shatha Dawood

Russian Military Assessment:

  • Suspected belligerent
    Russian Military
  • Russian Military position on incident
    Not yet assessed

Original strike reports

Russian Military

Russia has confirmed carrying out strikes in Idlib governorate between November 3rd-5th 2015.

Syrian Regime Assessment:

  • Suspected belligerent
    Syrian Regime
  • Syrian Regime position on incident
    Not yet assessed

Summary

  • Civilian harm reported
    Yes
  • Civilians reported killed
    1
  • (1 child)
  • Airwars civilian harm grading
    Contested
    Competing claims of responsibility e.g. multiple belligerents, or casualties also attributed to ground forces.
  • Suspected attackers
    Russian Military, Syrian Regime

Sources (6) [ collapse]

Incident Code

RS119

Incident date

November 5, 2015

Location

القريتين, Al Qaryatayn, Homs, Syria

Geolocation

34.229890, 37.238245 Note: The accuracy of this location is to Town level. Continue to map

Airwars assessment

An adult male civilian Abd al-Kareem al-Alawi (also known as Abo Moseab) was named as killed after an alleged strike on Qaryatain by Russian warplanes.

According to Radio Al Kul, Mr al-Alawi was one of two civilians who died: “The two martyrs are displaced from the neighbouring town of Maheen.

 

The local time of the incident is unknown.

The victims were named as:

Abd al-Kareem al-Alawi
Adult male killed

Summary

  • Civilian harm reported
    Yes
  • Civilians reported killed
    2
  • (1 man)
  • Airwars civilian harm grading
    Fair
    Reported by two or more credible sources, with likely or confirmed near actions by a belligerent.
  • Suspected attacker
    Unknown

Sources (2) [ collapse]

Geolocation notes

Reports of the incident mention the town Al Qaryatayn (القريتين), for which the generic coordinates are: 34.229890, 37.238245. Due to limited satellite imagery and information available to Airwars, we were unable to verify the location further.

Unknown Assessment:

  • Suspected belligerent
    Unknown
  • Unknown position on incident
    Not yet assessed

Original strike reports

Unknown

Russia has confirmed carrying out strikes in Homs governorate between November 3rd-5th 2015: “Near Tadmor (Homs province), a Su-24M eliminated a large fortified area of ISIS militants as well as a tank, an AA system ZU-23 and a mortar battery on their combat positions.”

Summary

  • Civilian harm reported
    Yes
  • Civilians reported killed
    2
  • (1 man)
  • Airwars civilian harm grading
    Fair
    Reported by two or more credible sources, with likely or confirmed near actions by a belligerent.
  • Suspected attacker
    Unknown

Sources (2) [ collapse]

Incident Code

RS120

Incident date

November 5, 2015

Location

البوكمال, Al Bukamal, Deir ez-Zor, Syria

Geolocation

34.4561111, 40.9190941 Note: The accuracy of this location is to City level. Continue to map

Airwars assessment

The Syrian Network for Human Rights reported that 71 civilians including nine or more children killed – and more than 100 people injured – when alleged Russian warplanes launched two airstrikes on the market in Al Bukamal. It added that more than 20 shops were destroyed and that a mosque, park and school were damaged while an ambulance burned.

The Violations Documentation Center put the death toll at least 48, including one woman and 11 children.

Deir Ezzor 24 insisted none of those killed has linked to so-called Islamic State: “At exactly 10:20 in the morning Russian aircraft launched two raids in a row on the perimeter of the Martyrs Park, where the first strike (using two missiles) left some casualties. Five minutes after the first raid, when paramedics and residents had gathered, the warplanes launched a second raid targeting the same place with the aim of causing a higher number of civilian casualties.”

VDC has named some 40 victims.

The Syrian Network has named 22 additional victims.

Additionally, VCD lists eight unidentified victims including four female adults and four male children.

The local time of the incident is unknown.

The victims were named as:

Family members (2)

Mothana al-Hasib
adult, male (or child according to SN4HR) killed
Hamid al-Hasib
Adult male killed

Family members (2)

Mohammad Hani al-Hamid
Adult male killed
Ahmad Hani al-Hamid
male killed

Family members (7)

Wife of Moeaz Hakoum al-Debs
Adult female killed
Ahmad Moeaz Hakoum al-Debs
Child male killed
Anas Moeaz Hakoum al-Debs
Child male killed
Hareth Moeaz Hakoum al-Debs
Child male killed
Younes Moeaz Hakoum al-Debs
Adult male killed
Moeaz Hakoum al-Debs
Adult male
Ibraheem Moeaz Hakoum al-Debs
Child male killed

Family members (2)

Shaker Hamid Shaker al-Batleh
Adult male killed
Ahmad Hamid Shaker al-Batleh
Adult male killed

Family members (3)

Ahmad Hashem al-Rafeeq al-Bargash
Adult male killed
Tareef Turky al-Bargash
Adult male killed
Bassam al-Bargash
Adult male killed

Family members (2)

Son of Hamed al-Hamad
Adult male
Son of Hamed al-Hamad
male

The victims were named as:

Mohammad Hamid Shaker al-Batleh
Adult male killed
Ahmad al-Mdare
Adult male killed
Habib Jomea al-Rwai
Age unknown male adult or child according to SN4HR killed
Adnan al-Abd al-Amir
Adult male killed
Farhan Ali al-Gdaib
Adult male killed
Raed Anwar al-Haj Asi “al-Bargash”
Adult male killed
Mohammad Walid al-Gozeh
Adult male killed
Haseeb Haj Ahmad
Adult male killed
Son of Hakoum al-Salman
Child male killed
Iyad Kasra al-Knyaiher
Adult male killed
Son of Jamal al-Haj Ali
Age unknown male killed
Mahmoud Bassam al-Sharif
Adult male killed
Yasin Abdullah al-Kasheer
Adult male killed
Son of Abdullah al-Gafian
Adult male killed
Son of Malis al-Naye
Adult male killed
Zeeb Hosain al-Basheer
Adult male killed
Hamoud Mustafa al-Kabe
Adult male killed
Khaled Mohammad Anwar al-Bargash
Adult male killed
Mohammad Walid Again
Adult male killed
Abdulraheem Moeaz Hakoum al-Debs
Adult male killed
Maddah Naser al-Hodhod
Adult male killed
Yasin al-Eifan
Adult male killed
Mohammad Walid Al Za’ein (Al Jouza)
Adult male killed
Madah Nasser Al Hudhud
Age unknown
Mahmoud Al Snais’s son
Age unknown
Yassine Abdullah Al Aifan
Age unknown male killed
Mohammad Jasem Al Maraa Al Ashaab
Age unknown male killed
Khalaf Rafea Al Aifa
Age unknown killed
Al Mraihi’s son
Age unknown killed
Hani Hameid Al Batleh’s son
Age unknown killed
Hani Hameid Al Batleh’s cousin
Age unknown killed
Mohammad Al Barghash’s son
Age unknown killed
Shash Al Karbouli
Age unknown killed
Mohammad Asaad Ayed Al Mattroud
Age unknown male
Hamad Samer Al Hamad
Age unknown
Al Haji Ibn Mattbalji
Adult male killed
Al Akhras Ibn Mattbalji
Age unknown killed
Ziad Al Khaleifa’s son
Age unknown male killed
Su’od Khuder Al Thamer
Age unknown killed
Omar Al Homsi
Age unknown male killed
Khaled Al Daheim
Age unknown male killed
Khaled Ibrahim Al Bakheit
Age unknown male killed
Sa’ad Al Eid’s son
Age unknown killed
Adel Al Dagher’s sons
Age unknown killed

Summary

  • Civilian infrastructure
    School
  • Civilian harm reported
    Yes
  • Civilians reported killed
    48 – 71
  • (9–11 children1–4 women9 men)
  • Civilians reported injured
    100
  • Airwars civilian harm grading
    Fair
    Reported by two or more credible sources, with likely or confirmed near actions by a belligerent.
  • Suspected attacker
    Russian Military

Sources (9) [ collapse]

Media
from sources (5) [ collapse]

  • The remains of an ambulance, following alleged shelling by Russian warplanes, published by a media agency that belongs to ISIL
  • Footage showing the moment a strike hit Al Bukamal, Nov 5th (via derrevolutio11)
  • This media contains graphic content. Click to unblur.

    A dead child following the raid in Al Bukamal
  • This media contains graphic content. Click to unblur.

  • This media contains graphic content. Click to unblur.

Russian Military Assessment:

  • Suspected belligerent
    Russian Military
  • Russian Military position on incident
    Not yet assessed

Original strike reports

Russian Military

Russia has confirmed carrying out strikes in Dayr ez Zawr governorate between November 3rd-5th 2015: “Near Al-Muhasan (Deir ez-Zor province), a Su-34 bomber performed strike against terrorist training camp of the Jabhat al-Nusra. Terrorist training infrastructure, installations and constructions used by terrorists for keeping explosive devices were completely destroyed by direct hits of guided air bombs.”

Summary

  • Civilian infrastructure
    School
  • Civilian harm reported
    Yes
  • Civilians reported killed
    48 – 71
  • (9–11 children1–4 women9 men)
  • Civilians reported injured
    100
  • Airwars civilian harm grading
    Fair
    Reported by two or more credible sources, with likely or confirmed near actions by a belligerent.
  • Suspected attacker
    Russian Military

Sources (9) [ collapse]

Incident Code

RS118

Incident date

November 4, 2015

Location

بنسن, Banin, Idlib, Syria

Geolocation

35.71158, 36.64075 Note: The accuracy of this location is to Village level. Continue to map

Airwars assessment

One man was reported killed in an alleged Russian airstrike on Banin village, according to the Syrian Observatory for Human Rights.

No further details are known at the present time.

 

The local time of the incident is unknown.

Summary

  • Civilian harm reported
    Yes
  • Civilians reported killed
    1
  • Airwars civilian harm grading
    Weak
    Single source claim, though sometimes featuring significant information.
  • Suspected attacker
    Unknown

Sources (1) [ collapse]

Geolocation notes

Reports of the incident mention the village of Banin (بنسن), for which the generic coordinates are: 35.71158, 36.64075. Due to limited satellite imagery and information available to Airwars, we were unable to verify the location further.

Unknown Assessment:

  • Suspected belligerent
    Unknown
  • Unknown position on incident
    Not yet assessed

Original strike reports

Unknown

Russia has confirmed carrying out strikes in Idlib governorate between November 3rd-5th 2015.

Summary

  • Civilian harm reported
    Yes
  • Civilians reported killed
    1
  • Airwars civilian harm grading
    Weak
    Single source claim, though sometimes featuring significant information.
  • Suspected attacker
    Unknown

Sources (1) [ collapse]